The word, “Argentina” conjures up all kinds of thoughts, mostly of colorful costumes, sexy tango, Evita, gauchos, and romance. Although these are all attributes of a beautiful country, Argentina is also a country with a declining economy and unstable government. Even so, the mystic and romance of this country remains while boasting numerous cultural attractions and natural wonders. To the north, you will find vast deserts, the Iguazu Falls, which are truly magnificent, and an incredible and varied geography. For example, while in Argentina, you could travel to the capital city of Buenos Aires, a sophisticated area that is actually quite westernized or venture deep into tropical rainforests.

This country tucked into the shadows of the Andes Mountains is considered a safe destination for tourist travelers and an affordable place to visit. During the pre-Colombian days, Argentina was a farming community where sedentary Indians lived and hunted. Although the Spanish tried to invade the country, the Indians held strong to their resistance. Today, Buenos Aires is a bustling, successful city but it was not established until 1580. Even then, it remained a quiet place for about 200 years.

Then, with the Indian populations spread out and not enough work, huge cattle ranches were created, which are called Haciendas. With this, the legendary Gaucho (Argentina cowboy) would be formed. By 1776, Buenos Aires became Rio de la Plata’s capital, which showed that the domination of Spain was getting old and bothersome. Still unhappy with the interference seen by Spain, the revolution of 1810 began, which would eventually lead to Argentina’s independence in 1816.

As the 20th century rolled around, things continued to change, moving to new leadership. However, from 1976 to 1983, Argentina underwent what is known as the “Dirty War”. With this death squads operated, which resulted in 10,000 to 30,000 people disappearing. The best-known victims, called Madres de la Plaza de Maya, tried to keep public vigils for those whose mysteriously disappeared. With continuing internal conflict, the battle for the Malvinas and Falklands erupted. The result was hysteria in both countries, causing a British flotilla to sail around the world to save remaining areas of the map, although small.

While the British were able to stake claim on some of the land, the true ownership of the Malvinas is still today disputed. Interestingly, the Argentine foreign minister offered to buy the islands in 1995, offering each of the 2,000 islanders $800,000 in United States money but with the British believing that oilfields were located just offshore, more fighting is likely. Since that time, Argentina has undergone many leadership changes, economic struggles, and a prolonged recession.

However, when you visit Argentina today, in spite of the ongoing struggles of these people, you cannot help but feel overwhelmed by the beauty seen all around. For example, the country is permeated with magnificent art and architecture, and the lifestyle is festive and inviting. However, literature is strong in Argentina with many famous writers being born from this country. With such an interest in cultural trends, you will find wonderful art galleries and museums dotting the country, along with a lively theater district.

Even with such a stronghold of the arts, dance is what most people think of when they travel to Argentina, specifically the tango. This particular dance captures the minds and imagination of lovers from around the world. Sensual, the tango is regarded as one of the best dances in the world. However, you will also find folk music on the rise. In addition to music and dance, soccer is also a favorite pastime of Argentina, with the country taking the coveted World Cup in 1976 and again in 1986.

Most of the locals speak Spanish although the immigrants will also speak their native tongue. In addition, Italian, although not widely spoken, is understood. In all, 17 languages are used by the people of Argentina, some that include Guarani, Matacos, Quechua, and Tobas. Now, if you want to enjoy a steak, no place on the planet will you taste beef anything like that in Argentina. Favorite dishes include Parrillada, which are mixed grills but keep in mind that many times, every part of the animal will be used to include the udders, intestines, and so on. For dessert, the Helado, which is ice cream, is incredible.

Most people are surprised by the vastness of Argentina but considering that it is the eighth largest country in the world and the second largest in South America, it should come as no surprise. To the west of Argentina, you will find Chile, which is separated by the Andean Cordilleras range. Then to the north are Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The openness and mass land is so amazing and so diverse.

The way you look at this country is in four distinct provinces. These include the Andes to the west, the fertile lowland to the north, central Pampas, and then Patagonia. The interesting thing is that each of these regions is different. For instance, the Andes are comprised of grape-filled foothills and glacial mountains, the lowland is subtropical rainforest, the Pampas is both dry and humid land, and Patagonia offers glacial regions along with pastoral steppes.

If you enjoy the outdoor activities, then you will love the 20 national parks where protected wildlife live. Some of the animals in these areas include the Caiman, Puma, Rhea, Andean Condor, Flamingo, Penguins, and more. Of course, the rainforests features colorful birds, monkeys, and other fascinating animals. While this country is colorful and full of life, Argentina offers very few festivals. Regardless, to experience South America and all its beauty, Argentina is an ideal place to start.

San Jos�

San Jos� is the capital and largest city of the nation of Costa Rica. It is also the capital of San Jos� Province.

San Jos� is located in the center of the country. It is on a mountain plateau at an elevation of about 4,000 feet above sea level. In 1997 the city had an estimated population of 329,154 people: the latter half of the 20th century was a period of rapid growth for the city, considering that in 1950 its population was a mere 86,900.

History

San Jos� was a small village of little significance until 1824. In that year, Costa Rica’s first elected head of state, liberal Juan Mora Fern�ndez, decided to move the government of Costa Rica from the Old Spanish colonial capital of Cartago and make a fresh start with a new city. This was a time of much optimism in the newly independent nation of Central America, of which Costa Rica was at that time a state (see: History of Central America). The new capital of San Jos� grew rapidly. Because of its late 18th century origin, San Jos� has little of the Spanish colonial architecture common in most other Latin American capitals.

The University of Costa Rica was established here in 1843. San Jos� also serves as the headquarters of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. Since then, it has grown rapidly and extended in the Central Valley. Along with Alajuela, Heredia, Cartago and other cities, the population reached 1.57 million in 2004, number 76 in the list of largest cities in the Americas. The cities of Heredia, Alajuela and San Jos� are very close to each other. The Juan Santamar�a International Airport and the Palacio de los Deportes are located in the metropolitan area, GAM San Jos�.

Important places in the city include the Banco Central de Costa Rica, La Sabana Metropolitan Park, Avenida Central (which is one of the major commercial areas in the city). The Central Park and la Plaza de la Cultura are visited by thousands of workers and tourists every day. The Melico Salazar Theater (National Theatre) and the Cathedral are landmarks in the central area. In the south, the Cl�nica B�blica (a private hospital) and the Pacific Train Station are important buildings.

Attractions

In San Jose there are many museums and attractions offering a different alternative to explore the city. One of these is the gold museum offering a rare look at the different gold artifacts of ancient Latin American civilizations. A second interesting attraction for the less adventurous is the Lancaster Botanical Gardens just outside of San Jose. A third famous Costa Rican location is the Hotel and Casino del Ray, which is a famous hotel in the heart of San Jose with the famous Blue Marlin Bar inside.

San Salvador is the capital of El Salvador.

The origins of the city can be traced to before the Spanish Conquest. It is near the present location of San Salvador that the Pipil tribes, descendants of the Aztecs in Mexico, established their capital, Cuzcatl�n. Not very much is known about this city, since its inhabitants abandoned it in an effort to avoid Spanish rule.

Although the city was founded in the 16th century, it was rebuilt and changed location twice afterwards. Originally founded in what is now the colonial town of Suchitoto, north of the present-day city, it was moved to the Valle de Las Hamacas (literally Valley of the Hammocks due to the intense seismic activity that characterizes it), which boasted more space and more fertile land, thanks to the pristine Acelhuate River (sadly, it is now extremely polluted). As the population of the country remained relatively small up until the early 20th century, the city grew slowly. It became somewhat of a tourist attraction during the early 20th century as it was considered a beautiful city: with a population of approximately 30,000 it was small, spacious, and clean.

Today, San Salvador is a modern city. The city proper has a population of about half a million, and covers an area of approximately 75 square kilometers. The explosive growth during and after the war created a metropolitan area (the AMSS, Area Metropolitana de San Salvador) that is administered as a whole. The AMSS covers an area of approximately 610 square kilometers and has a population of about 2.1 million.

The Pan-American Highway runs through the city, connecting it with other urban areas in Central America and the United States. San Salvador is also the overall transportation and economic hub of the nation, since it is home to one third of the population and one half of the country’s wealth.

The city’s modern downtown area has many high-rise buildings, but very few of the historic landmarks remain, due to the earthquakes that have hit the city since its founding in 1525 by Spanish Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado. Today, the city produces beer, tobacco products, textiles, and soaps.

San Salvador is a large city whose population is starkly divided between the wealthy and impoverished. The wealthier neighborhoods of Escal�n, Ciudad Merliot and San Benito boast luxury shops (some of the largest malls in Central America, including the largest shopping mall in Central America, Metrocentro), five-star hotels, tree lined avenues and beautiful, well-guarded mansions. However, most of the other neighborhoods in Apopa and Soyapango, among others, are hot, dusty and overcrowded, and are plagued by skyrocketing crime rates.

While the city is relatively wealthy compared to the rest of the country (per capita GDP is approximately USD $6000, compared to a national average of approximately $2300), poverty is one of its major problems. Pollution is also a major problem, with San Salvador considered the most polluted city in Central America (although far from the extremes of Mexico City).

The city has suffered from severe earthquakes over the years, the most disastrous of which occurred in 1854. Also worthy of mentioning is the 1917 eruption of the San Salvador volcano, which resulted in three major earthquakes and damaged the city so extensively that the government was forced to move the capital to the present-day city of Santa Tecla, then named Nueva San Salvador. The most recent Earthquake, in 2001, resulted in considerable damage, especially in Las Colinas suburb where a landslide destroyed most of Las Colinas. During the 1980s, conflicts in El Salvador erupted into a civil war, and many people fled to the city since most of the fighting occurred outside of it (San Salvador itself was not directly affected by the war until the final offensive of 1989).

Guatemala has a long history of being a thriving fishing and farming community that can be dated back to 2000 BC, even before the Maya civilization dominated Central America. During the Early Classic period around AD 250, many magnificent temple cities were constructed in the Guatemalan highlands. However, by the Late Classic period, from AD 600 to 900, the primary power had moved to the lowlands of El Peten. However, after the mysterious demise of the Mayans, the Itzaes settled in El Peten.

Interestingly, many of the Mayan ruins were discovered when Pedro de Alvarado came to this country for the King of Spain in 1523. However, the kingdoms remaining in the highlands were crushed by Alvarado’s armies, lands turned into large estates, and the people exploited by the new property owners. Then friars of Dominican, Augustinian, and Franciscan arrived but they were unable to stop the exploitation. Sadly, the religious imperialism they brought with them was the cause of many valuable traces of the Mayan culture to be demolished. Click here to read more.

Costa Rica is a place with pristine beaches, blue water, warm, sunny days, abundant fish life, and welcoming people. Interestingly, many people are not aware that Costa Rica is also home to 200 plus volcanic formations, dating back 65 million years! Of these, seven are active, which is related to the fertile soil.

Over the years, eruptions from these seven volcanoes have left massive destruction. Irazu is the highest volcano in Costa Rica while Poas is the second widest, which measures almost one mile in diameter, and Arenal is the most active. In 1963, Irazu erupted, spewing ash over San Jose and other areas for two years. The amount of ash that fell was so significant rooftops were covered with five inches while people had to walk around with a cloth to their face in order to breathe. Click here to read more.

Caracas

Caracas is the capital of Venezuela. It is located in the north of the country, following the contours of a narrow mountain valley. The valley’s temperatures are springlike, and the urbanizable terrain of the Caracas Valley lies between 2,500 and 3,000 feet (760 and 910 m) above sea level. The Valley is close to the Caribbean Sea , separated from the coast by a wall of mountains that rise to more than 7,000 feet (2130 m). The historic center of Caracas, known as the Libertador Department, had a population of 1.9 million in 2004. The metropolitan area, or Caracas region, boasted a population of 5.1 million in 2004.

History

The city was founded in 1527 as Santiago de Le�n de Caracas by Spanish explorer Diego de Losada. The city of Caracas gave birth to two of America’s most important figures Francisco de Miranda (1750) and “El Libertador” Sim�n Bol�var (1783).

An earthquake destroyed Caracas on March 26, 1812 and was portrayed by authorities as a divine punishment to people rebelling against the Spanish Crown.

As the economy of oil-rich Venezuela grew steadily during the first part of the 20th century, Caracas became one of Latin America’s economical centers, and was also known as the preferred hub between Europe and South America. The Concorde used to fly weekly to Caracas implying its geographical and economical importance.

On October 17, 2004, one of the Parque Central Torre towers caught fire.

The city hosted the world heavyweight championship fight between George Foreman and Ken Norton on March 26, 1974. Foreman won by a 2nd round TKO.

Places of Interest

Capitolio Nacional

The National Capitol occupies an entire city block, and, with its golden domes and neoclassical pediments, can seem even bigger. The building was commissioned by Guzm�n Blanco in the 1870s, and is most famous for its Sal�n El�ptico, an oval hall with a mural-covered dome and walls lined with portraits of the country’s great and good.

Visit on Independence Day and you’ll catch a glimpse of the original Act of Independence of 1811, installed inside a pedestal topped by a bust of Bol�var and displayed only on this most auspicious of public days. The halls surrounding the salon are daubed with battle scenes commemorating Venezuela’s fight for independence.

Casa Natal de Bol�var

Skyscrapers may loom overhead, but there’s more than a hint of original colonial flavor in this neatly proportioned reconstruction of the house where Sim�n Bol�var was born on July 24, 1783. The museum’s exhibits include period weapons, banners and uniforms.

Much of the original colonial interior has been replaced by monumental paintings of battle scenes, but more personal relics can be seen in the nearby Museo Bolivariano. Pride of place goes to the coffin in which Bol�var’s remains were brought from Colombia; his ashes now rest in the National Pantheon.

Bol�var’s funeral was held 12 years after his death at the Iglesia de San Francisco, just a few blocks west, and it was also here that he was proclaimed ‘El Libertador’ in 1813. The church dazzles the eye with its richly gilded baroque altarpieces, and still retains much of its original colonial interior, despite being given a modernizing once-over by Guzm�n Blanco.

Museo de Arte Colonial

The gardens that surround this museum are almost as enticing as its interior. The museum is housed in a gorgeous colonial country mansion known as Quinta de Anauco, which is surrounded by beautiful greenery. Inside the house you’ll find meticulously restored rooms, filled with carefully selected works of art, furniture and period household odds and ends.

The quinta was well outside the historic town when it was built back in 1797, but today it’s an oasis in the inner suburb of San Bernardino. Head there late on a Sunday morning and you might catch a chamber music concert in rooms which were once the house stables.

Pante�n Nacional

Venezuela’s most venerated building is five blocks north of Plaza Bol�var, on the northern edge of the old town. Formerly a church, the building was given its new purpose as the final resting place for eminent Venezuelans by Guzm�n Blanco in 1874. The entire central nave is dedicated to Bol�var, with the altar’s place taken by the hero’s bronze sarcophagus, while lesser luminaries are relegated to the aisles. The national pantheon’s vault is covered with 1930s paintings depicting scenes from Bol�var’s life, and the huge crystal chandelier glittering overhead was installed in 1883 on the centennial of his birth. It’s worth hanging around to catch the ceremonial changing of the guard, held several times a day.

Parque Central

An short saunter east of Plaza Bol�var takes you from historic to futuristic Caracas. Rather than a welcome expanse of inner-city greenery, this park is a concrete complex of five high-rise residential slabs of somewhat apocalyptic-appearing architecture, crowned by two 53-storey octagonal towers while one of them is currently going under major repairs due to the fire which burned the building on October 17, 2004.

Parque Central is Caracas’ art and culture hub, loaded with museums, cinemas, the Complejo Cultural performing-arts center and the Ateneo de Caracas, home to the esteemed Rajatabla theatre company. The Mirador de la Torre Oeste, on the 52nd floor, gives a 360� bird’s-eye view of the city.

Plaza Bol�var

Leafy Plaza Bol�var is the focus of the old town with the inevitable monument to El Libertador, Simon Bol�var, at its heart. Modern high-rise buildings have overpowered much of the colonial flavor of Caracas’ founding neighborhood. But the lively area still boasts some important sites.

Montevideo

Montevideo is the capital, chief port and largest city in Uruguay. Montevideo is situated in the South of the country, at the northern mouth of the very wide Plata River (R�o de la Plata) estuary, 120 miles across from Buenos Aires at the southern side. The climate is mild, with average temperatures of approximately 13 �C.

History

The Portuguese founded Colonia del Sacramento in the 17th century despite Spanish claims to the area due to the Treaty of Tordesillas. The Spanish chased the Portuguese out of a fort in the area in 1724. Then, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala - governor of Buenos Aires - founded the city on December 24, 1726 to prevent further incursions.

In 1828, the town became the capital of Uruguay. There are at least two explanations for the name Montevideo: The first states that it comes from the Portuguese “Monte vide eu” which means, “I see a mountain”. The second is that the Spaniards recorded the location of a fountain in a map as “Monte VI De Este a Oeste” meaning “The sixth mountain from east to west”. The city’s full original name is San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo.

The city fell under heavy British influence from the early 19th century until the early 20th century as a way to circumvent Argentine and Brazilian commercial control. Argentinian dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas between 1838 and 1851 repeatedly besieged it. Between 1860 and 1911, the British built an extensive railroad network linking the city to the surrounding countryside.

During World War II, a famous incident involving the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee took place in Montevideo, which was a neutral port during the war. After the Battle of the River Plate with the British navy on December 13, 1939, the Graf Spee retreated to the port. To avoid risking the crew in what he thought would be a losing battle, Captain Hans Langsdorff scuttled the ship on December 17th.

Growth/Economy

Montevideo began as a minor settlement. In 1860, Montevideo had a population of 37,787. By 1884, the population had grown to 104,472, including many immigrants. By this time, trade had become the main source of revenue for the city and it became a rival to Buenos Aires. During the early 20th century, many Europeans immigrated to the city, and by 1908, 30% of the population was foreign born.

During the mid-20th century, military dictatorship and economic stagnation caused a decline whose residual effects are still seen today. Many rural poor flooded the city, with a large concentration in Ciudad Vieja.

Recently, economic recovery and stronger trade ties with Uruguay’s neighbors have led to renewed agricultural development and hopes for greater future prosperity.

As of 2004, the city has a population of 1.35 million out of a total 3.43 million in Uruguay. The greater metropolitan area has 1.8 million people.

Asuncion

Asuncion, population 500,000+, is the capital of Paraguay. Its Metropolitan Area, named Gran Asunci�n, includes the cities of San Lorenzo, Fernando de la Mora, Lambar�, Luque, Mariano Roque Alonso, �emby and Villa Elisa; having more than 1,500,000 inhabitants. It is the seat of government, principal port and chief industrial and cultural centre of the country. Main outputs of the manufacturing industries include footwear, textiles, and tobacco products.

Asunci�n is one of the oldest cities in South America, being known as Mother of Cities because it was from here where the colonial expeditions to found other cities departed, including the second foundation of Buenos Aires. The site of the city may have been first visited by Juan de Ayolas, but the town, called Nuestra Se�ora de la Asunci�n (Our Lady of the Assumption), was founded in August 15, 1537, by Juan de Salazar and Gonzalo de Mendoza. In 1731 an uprising under Jos� de Antequera y Castro was one of the first rebellions against Spanish colonial rule. After the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70), Asunci�n was occupied by Brazilian troops until 1876.

The city is home to the Godoi Museum, the Church of La Encarnaci�n, and the Pante�n Nacional, a smaller version of Les Invalides in Paris, where many of the nation’s heroes are entombed. Other landmarks include the Palacio de los Lopez (presidential palace) The old Senate building (a modern building opened to house Congress in 2003), the Catedral Metropolitana and the Casa de Independencia (one of the few examples of colonial architecture remaining in the city).

The downtown area of the city, near the port and centered on the Plaza de los Heroes, and the Plaza Uruguaya was largely developed during the 1970s and 1980s, leaving little of the colonial city. However it is now rather run down and somewhat dangerous at night. The ‘better’ areas of Asuncion are in the suburbs towards Avenida San Martin, where the Paraguayan elite shops in US-style shopping malls driving large SUVs. One of the most luxurious malls is called Shopping del Sol, which includes a Macys-style department store: Unicentro.

The main universities in the city are the Universidad Catolica Universidad Catolica(private, run by the church) and the Universidad Nacional (state run) Universidad Nacional. The Catolica has a site in the centre, next to the cathedral and a larger campus in the adjoining city of Lambare, while the Nacional has it’s main campus near the adjoining city of San Lorenzo. There are also a number of smaller privately run universities.

The major newspapers based in Asuncion are ABC Color, Ultima Hora, Noticias and La Nacion. Of these ABC and Ultima Hora are probably the best regarded, however all Paraguayan media has questions about its independence hanging over it.

The City is served by a river terminal downtown, an international airport in the suburb of Luque and the main long-distance bus terminus is on Avenida Republica Argentina.

The Sumo wrestlers are the largest and heaviest of athletes. And when they sprinkle the salt, stomp their feet and exchange intimidating positions to begin the bout, one gets to watch one of the most scintillating sights in the world of sport. This is among the features that has made Sumo wrestling so thrilling to the Japanese for centuries and now to the West. The biggest proof of this is the recent win of the highest Grand Champion title by the US-born Akebono.

There is no clear date when Sumo wrestling, Japan’s national sport, evolved as few written records have been maintained. Sumo is also regarded as the earliest of martial arts with Jujitsu being its direct descendant. Many believe it goes back 1,500 years, while some fans say that ancient paintings have revealed that the sport was played in 23 BC.

One thing is for sure that Sumo wrestling has its origins in religion. According to legend, the very origin of the Japanese race marked the victory of a God, Take-Mikazuchi, over his rival Take-Minakata in a Sumo fight. The Emperor of Japan traces his ancestry to Take-Mikazuchi. The bouts, along with dramas and dances, form part of the rituals and prayers dedicated to the Gods for a bountiful harvest.

In the beginning, these were held mostly in shrines and later moved to the forecourts of warlords, who used the event as another means to demonstrate power. In the 8^th Century, Sumo became an integral part of ceremonies of the Imperial Court and most of the rules and techniques then developed laid the foundations for the Sumo we know of today. Today’s Japanese Sumo Association has its direct origins in the professional Sumo groups first formed in the early 17^th Century.

The most fascinating thing is the wrestler’s gigantic size that is based on a scientific principle – the heavier the fighter, the lower his center of gravity and therefore that much tougher for a rival to force him out of the ring. To ensure this, the wrestler has an elaborate rice-based diet. For breakfast, he is served chanko – a fat-rich stew comprising pork, eggs, cabbage and bean sprouts. Then after training, it is lunch followed by a nap. Soon, they are ready for dinner. This process, too, is based on a principle that heavy eating followed by sleep results in weight gain. Not surprisingly, the champions weigh several hundred pounds. Though they look obese, they do pump a lot of iron.

Earlier, the contestant wore beautifully embroidered aprons indicating the feudal family he represented. 17^th Century onwards, the hair was tied into a topknot to cushion the fighter’s head during a fall. This tradition continues till date. Nowadays, wrestlers wear equally colorful aprons that denote their birthplace, ranking and the professional group they belong to.

The commencement of the game is preceded by a ring-purifying ceremony. Salt and sake (rice wine) are placed at the center, after which the priest blesses the ring. Salt is meant to purify the ring and rid it of evil spirits. Just before the bout, the wrestler rinses his mouth with water to symbolically cleanse his mind and body. The higher the ranking, the greater are the ritualistic obligations on the wrestler. For instance, the Grand Champion has to perform a dance before the bout. The steps are only extensions of his stretching exercises.

Sumo is said to be essentially a mind game, which is why there are occasions when opponents stare at each other far longer rather than engaging in the physical bout itself. In the 4.55-metre wide ring, there is much slapping and pushing. The aim here is to break the other’s concentration. Kicking in the groin or the chest or any move intended to injure the contestant is not allowed.

The wrestler’s dress is the mewashi or loincloth. Interestingly, these are never washed as belief has it that if washed, the wrestlers’ entire experience is washed away in the process. At the physical level of the bout, it is the mewashi that the rivals seek to hold in a vice-like grip so that he can try to have the rival’s body, other than the soles, touch the mat. Thereafter, it is simple – the winner goes up in rank and the loser is demoted. And no matter what, the wrestler would simply show no emotion.

The word castle conjures up images of Europe, but it was the Japanese who adapted it to the changing times and blended strength with beauty and grace. Castles are also attributed to William the Conqueror whose invasion of England in 1066 triggered the stupendous erection of these structures. Six hundred years later, they began losing their value as a defense structure with the advent of potent gunpowder and artillery.

In Japan, the castle assumed its original form during the Nara Period of 545-794 AD. Then these structures made their transition from wood and stone fortifications to those having forts and moats as feudal warlords became increasingly belligerent. This was the underlying logic behind castle building – adapting to the requirements of the warlords and the changing times. The castle was primarily built for defense purposes. When under attack, the warlords and their men retreated into the towers, which also doubled as granaries and armories. The towers began to epitomize power and wealth – the bigger the tower, the mightier and wealthier the warlord. Soon enough, the castle became synonymous with both.

At one time, there were an awesome 30,000 to 40,000 castles in Japan built between 1333 and 1572. Hundreds of the mountaintop castles were constructed in the Sengoku Period, also known as the Warring States Period which witnessed the bloody civil wars. Though the castles were small, they had huge watch towers. Then the castles came to the plains. The Azuchi Castle was built in 1579 by Oda Nobunaga who later embarked upon the unification of larger sections of Japan. This process automatically rendered a majority of the medieval structures irrelevant which soon fell into disuse.

Azuchi changed the tenets of castle building in the country and reoriented the definition to have the structure demonstrate not just protection but also the builder’s status. The presence of a vantage point determined if the area was worthy of castle building. With this, the structures became more complex. The very planning became a detailed and time-consuming process. They had to be protective, at the same time artistic and grand to demonstrate the owner’s power and social standing. These aspects were enhanced by the growing influence of the Samurai clans. The Japanese were exposed to firearms in the mid-1500s and this further changed the castle from being a secure structure to one having military advantages.

Gradually, the castle began to encompass every aspect of daily life. Apart from its military significance, the castles became nerve centers of governments and army headquarters. These also accommodated typical palace politics of alliances and one-upmanship. The castles had huge grounds that evolved into entire townships, bringing in different people in areas of trade, crafts, agriculture and fine arts. The emergence of the castle township directly determined the prosperity of the area.

Peace became palpable during the Edo Period, 1603-1867 AD and Tokugawa Ieyasu unified all of Japan under one government. He built the Edo castle in Tokyo whose fortress was made of cedar. The roofs were made with copper to prevent fires that could be set off by the enemies’ flaming arrowheads. Soon after, the “Ikkoku Ichijoo” law was enacted that made it mandatory for every province to have just one castle. After this, several castles were razed. The 250-year reign of peace began the decline of the castles’ importance – first from a military standpoint and later, the social standpoint.

In 1873, the Meiji government passed the Castle Abolishment Law to mark the end of all those structures that served as a reminder of the feudal period. Within two years, at least 100 of the 170 Edo Period castles were destroyed. The ripped-up parts of the grand castles were sold as firewood and the stones used for dam and railway constructions. The rest were lost to earthquakes and fires. Whatever was left collapsed to World War II bombings. Today, a dozen of the original castles with their characteristic huge towers remain, though much of the adjoining lands and sprawling gardens have been lost with time.