For over a year our writers have been working on our reference section to prepare for the launch of Latin Art Mall. We have hundreds of articles on the History, Arts and Crafts, Cuisine, Flora and Fauna of Mexico, Central and South America. In addition to articles about the products we sell, there are hundreds of interesting articles about the life and culture of various countries and just about everything you could imagine. From the Inca, Mayan, and Aztec civilizations to the Best resorts in Mexico; you will find it all.

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Just in from China is a great selection of Jade and Stone carvings. Choose from foot-long dragons, Huge Jade Buddhas, Carved Foo Lions, and more. Dozens to choose from.

If you are up for adventure, a long uphill climb, and the most unbelievable, mesmerizing view in the entire world, you must see the Machu Picchu ruins.  These ruins are surrounded by mystery.  As you scale the rock steps for hours, finally reaching the top of the mountain, you will wonder how this “Lost City of the Incas” was created.  Obviously, getting the massive rocks to build this city to the top seems an impossible task. Considered one of the most famous of all Inca architecture ruins, Machu Picchu is located about 70 miles from the city of Cuzco, which takes about three and one-half hours to reach by train.  Located one and one-half miles above sea level, these ruins are found in the rich jungle where it is estimated being built sometime around the mid-15^th century.  The architecture of Machu Picchu, built by the Inca Pachacutecs, was not discovered until 1911 at which time Hiram Bingham, and American explorer came up them during his travels. What you will discover when you reach Machu Picchu is that there is an almost invisible force of spirituality coupled with some of the most beautiful scenery on earth.  Interestingly, we have since learned that the only people who were allowed access to this city included priests, priestesses, noblemen, and chosen women known as Akllas.  This sanctuary is found on the eastern slop of Machu Picchu but in in two different areas.  The first is an agricultural area and the second urban. With the urban section of Machu Picchu, you would find many dwellings and canal systems along with temples, squares, royal houses, and mausoleums.  On the other part of the ruins is the agricultural aspect where the grass is so green that there are no words to describe the color.  The ruins show us several levels of architecture but the one thing that is consistent and perfect are the buildings used for religious purposes. Generally, all the roofs of the building were made from tree trunks, thatched with straw of ichu.  For the walls of the buildings, these are all designed to lean inward just a little to protect the structures from earthquakes.  As you look out over the peak of the Huayna Picchu, which is located on the other side of the ruins, you would see a breathtaking view.  This panoramic view stretches out over the Urubamba Valley, so beautiful you would envision Heaven looking the same. The climate at Machu Picchu is very tropical with average temperatures throughout the year between 55 and 60 degrees.  However, you will actually experience two very separate seasons.  The first season starts in November, running to March during which time there is significant rain, thus the incredible green vegetation.  The second runs from April to October, which is considered the dry season.  During this season, you would expect to see a little warmer temperatures but still very comfortable.  When visiting this part of the world, you certainly want to take the time to visit Machu Picchu, gaining an entirely different view of the world.  

Deep inside the jungle of the Darien Rainforest in Panama you will find yourself surrounded by very kind and generous people. These people are better known as the Wounaan Indians, which are one of the two groups of the Choco Indians that migrated from a region, with the same name, in Colombia in the times when Panama was part of that country.

The most interesting characteristic that distinguishes this group of Indians from the rest is the ability to weave intricate baskets. As a daily activity you can see Wounaan Indian women, and even the youngest girls weaving baskets in their free time. The art of the Wounaan Basketry combines nature and their native culture. These women weave the Chunga Palm with other plants and vines, bark and leaves. The more refined decorative baskets are created from palm materials of the Nahual bush and the Chunga tree and usually have many colors. There are baskets that are simple and utilitarian and which might be used to carry heavy loads or small animals or fish, and some others that are used for agricultural purposes such as carrying seeds or harvesting crops.

Now the Indians create smaller versions of these beautiful baskets so others can own them and they can purchase much needed items for their tribe.

Tijuana is the largest city in the state of Baja California, Mexico. Tijuana is also the most northerly city in Latin America. It is known as the corner of Mexico and consequently of Latin America. The city is bordered to the north by San Diego County, California, United States; to the south, by the municipalities of Playas de Rosarito and Ensenada; with the municipality of Tecate to the east; and to the west, by the Pacific Ocean. The municipality of Tijuana has an extension of 1,727 square kilometers and includes part of the Coronado Islands located off the coast of the municipality in the Pacific Ocean.

Population

According to the INEGI (Instituto Nacional de Estad���ica, Geograf���e Informᴩca Eng: National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Data Processing) the municipality of Tijuana in 2000 included 1,210,820 inhabitants. More than 20 universities and centers for higher education give it a dynamic student sector. The city ranks fifth in population in Mexico, after Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey and Puebla.

Geography

This border city just south of San Diego, California, USA, is sometimes considered a mix of Mexico’s good and bad: known for its economic prosperity, popular discos, and shopping areas, Tijuana is also considered to be Mexico’s biggest illicit drug and prostitution center. Many of the prostitutes are women from Central America who hope to enter the United States.

Name and mottoes

Avenida Revoluci󮠨as many open bars, pharmacies, and curio shops that attract many tourists. The majority of these businesses accept the U.S. dollar and use English to conduct everyday business transactions. Historians have investigated the origins of the name of the city of Tijuana. One legend says that it was the name of a ranch in the area, property of “T���Juana” - Aunt Jane. In actuality, it is recognized that name comes from the Yuman Indian language from the early inhabitants. In other documents there are mentions of “La Tia Juana”, “Tiguana”, “Tiuana”, “Teguana”, “Tiwana”, “Tijuan”, “Ticuan”, “Tijuana”. Based on the Yuman language, historians have come to recognize Tijuana originating from “Tiwan”, meaning close to the sea. These studies notwithstanding, many Americans still mistakenly believe the city to be called “Tiajuana”.

The city is nicknamed “TJ”, especially among English speakers, but also by the Spanish-speaking residents, who pronounce it as ti yei. The latter also refer to the city as Tijuas.

Tijuana’s city motto is Aqu���mpieza la patria. The Mexican government actually translates it as “Gateway to Mexico”, but the literal translation is “The homeland starts here”. It is also sometimes known as the “Most visited city in the world”, owing to its proximity to the world’s busiest border crossing.

History

Traffic traveling into Mexico through San Ysidro tends to be less congested than traveling vice versa. The border entering Mexico is also less guarded.The area in which the city of Tijuana is situated in a region once inhabited by the Kumeyaay Indians, a tribe of Yuman-speaking hunter-gatherers. Europeans first arrived in 1542, when the Spanish explorer Juan Rodr���ez Cabrillo toured the coastline of the area, which was later mapped in 1602 by SebastiᮠVisca���. In 1769, Father Juan Cresp���ocumented more detailed information about the area that would one day be called the Valley of Tijuana and Father Jun���ro Serra founded the first mission of Alta California in San Diego.

More settlement of the area took place near the end of the mission era when Jos頍ar���Echend��� governor of the Baja California and Alta California, awarded a large land grant to Santiago Arg?in 1829. This large cattle ranch, Rancho T���Juana (”Aunt Jane Ranch”), covered 100 square kilometres.

In 1848, as a result of the Mexican-American war with the United States, Mexico lost all of Alta California. Tijuana acquired a new and distinct character and purpose on the international border. The city began to shed its cattle ranching origins and began to play in a new role, forming a socio-economic structure for the city.

The year 1889 marked the beginning of the urban settlement, when descendants of Santiago Arg?and Agust���Olvera entered an agreement to begin development of the city of Tijuana. The agreement was dated July 11 of that year. Decades later, during the second Symposium of History held in 1975, this date was recognized as the date the city was founded.

Tijuana saw its future in tourism from its inception. From the end of the 19th century to the first decades of the 20th, the city attracted large numbers of Californians crossing over the border, coming to Mexico for trade and entertainment.

During the Mexican Revolution, Tijuana was also a small stage for revolutionaries loyal to Ricardo Flores Mag󮬠who took over the city in 1911. Shortly, thereafter, federal troops arrived and routed the rebels. Being so close to the action, San Diegans could watch the battle from the safety of the international border.

In 1916, the Feria San Diego, California Panamᠢrought a great number of visitors to the neighboring American city to the north. Tijuana took the opportunity to attract these tourists to the other side of the border with Feria T���ca Mexicana. The fair included curio shops, regional foods, thermal baths, horse racing and boxing matches. With this event, the city became universally known as a tourist destination.

The 1920s changed Tijuana forever when the enactment of prohibition in the U.S. sent droves of Americans across the border to partake in legal drinking and gambling. Large and impressive casinos opened, like Agua Caliente in Tijuana. The Caesar Salad was invented there during this period.

The Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world, extend along the northern frontiers of Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma. They were formed geologically as a result of the collision of the Indian subcontinent with Asia. This process of plate tectonics is ongoing, and the gradual northward drift of the Indian subcontinent still causes earthquakes (see Earthquakes, this ch.). Lesser ranges jut southward from the main body of the Himalayas at both the eastern and western ends. The Himalayan system, about 2,400 kilometers in length and varying in width from 240 to 330 kilometers, is made up of three parallel ranges–the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas–sometimes collectively called the Great Himalayan Range. The Greater Himalayas, or northern range, average approximately 6,000 meters in height and contain the three highest mountains on earth: Mount Everest (8,796 meters) on the China-Nepal border; K2 (8,611 meters, also known as Mount Godwin-Austen, and in China as Qogir Feng) in an area claimed by India, Pakistan, and China; and Kanchenjunga (8,598 meters) on the India-Nepal border. Many major mountains are located entirely within India, such as Nanda Devi (7,817 meters) in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The snow line averages 4,500 to 6,000 meters on the southern side of the Greater Himalayas and 5,500 to 6,000 on the northern side. Because of climatic conditions, the snow line in the eastern Himalayas averages 4,300 meters, while in the western Himalayas it averages 5,800 meters.

The Lesser Himalayas, located in northwestern India in the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, in north-central India in the state of Sikkim, and in northeastern India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, range from 1,500 to 5,000 meters in height. Located in the Lesser Himalayas are the hill stations of Shimla (Simla) and Darjiling (Darjeeling). During the colonial period, these and other hill stations were used by the British as summer retreats to escape the intense heat of the plains. It is in this transitional vegetation zone that the contrasts between the bare southern slopes and the forested northern slopes become most noticeable.

The Outer or Southern Himalayas, averaging 900 to 1,200 meters in elevation, lie between the Lesser Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plain. In Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, this southernmost range is often referred to as the Siwalik Hills. It is possible to identify a fourth, and northernmost range, known as the Trans-Himalaya. This range is located entirely on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, north of the great west-to-east trending valley of the Yarlung Zangbo River. Although the Trans-Himalaya Range is divided from the Great Himalayan Range for most of its length, it merges with the Great Himalayan Range in the western section–the Karakoram Range–where India, Pakistan, and China meet.

The southern slopes of each of the Himalayan ranges are too steep to accumulate snow or support much tree life; the northern slopes generally are forested below the snow line. Between the ranges are extensive high plateaus, deep gorges, and fertile valleys, such as the vales of Kashmir and Kulu. The Himalayas serve a very important purpose. They provide a physical screen within which the monsoon system operates and are the source of the great river systems that water the alluvial plains below (see Climate, this ch.). As a result of erosion, the rivers coming from the mountains carry vast quantities of silt that enrich the plains.

The area of northeastern India adjacent to Burma and Bangladesh consists of numerous hill tracts, averaging between 1,000 and 2,000 meters in elevation, that are not associated with the eastern part of the Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh. The Naga Hills, rising to heights of more than 3,000 meters, form the watershed between India and Burma. The Mizo Hills are the southern part of the northeastern ranges in India. The Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills are centered in the state of Meghalaya and, isolated from the northeastern ranges, divide the Assam Valley from Bangladesh to the south and west.

Some of the most amazing things to see in Mexico are the ruins, which provide us with a glance into a very important and sometimes difficult past. Take the Mitla, Mixtec Ruins as an example. The name Mitla comes from the word Mictlan, a Nahuatl word that translates to “Place of the Dead.” Now, the ruins are also called Lyobaa in the Zapotecan language, which translates to “Burial Place.”

The Mitla Ruins are indeed a location with tombs of ancient priests and kings. Through years of archeological study, it is estimated that the site was inhabited as early as 900 BC. However, the current ruins and structures date between 200 and 900 AD. As you travel about the ruins, you will discover many different and unique structures.

For example, the city itself corresponds with the peak of Zapotecan rule over Monte Alban from 500 BC to 800 AD, although there was tremendous growth from 750 to 1521 AD at which time the Zapotecan rule ended. Because of this, you will see some ruins that are very ornate and detailed while others have a more rustic, ancient appearance.

In the late 1500s, a Spanish explorer by the name of Canseco came to this region and stated that the interior chamber of the Hall of Columns was the home of the High Priest. In fact, Father Burgoa who was a Spanish Chronicler added to that saying that Mitla was also the residence of the Zapotec High Priest. This man was so incredibly powerful that legend tells us even King Zaashila bowed to his commands. Burgoa also stated that the High Priest rules from a jaguar covered thrown.

This ancient city was originally comprised of five primary palaces. One of these palaces was for the Zapotecan High Priest, one for the secondary priests, one for the military officers, and then one maintained for the king along with his entourage whenever they were in Monte Alban. As you can imagine, the Mitla - Mixtec Ruins were quite impressive in the time and today, you can experience what is left.

To get to the Mitla - Mixtec, you would take the famous Pan American Highway. The great thing about this route is that along the way, you pass a number of interesting archaeological sites, along with craft villages and markets. In addition, you can stop to visit the church at Tlacochahuaya, Teotitlan del Valle, which is a weaver’s village, the Dominican chapel, and other ruins that include Yagul, Dainzu, and Lambityeco.

You will even have the opportunity the El Tule, which is a massive and ancient cypress tree. The reason the El Tule so incredible is that it is 2,000 years old. This particular tree is in the town of Santa Maria del Tule, which is located just outside Oaxaca where it stands in a churchyard.

As you plan your trip to the Mitla - Mixtec Ruins, try to plan your trip so you can take in some of these amazing sites. You will really enjoy the visit and learn many things about the people of this era.

Both the Wounaan and Embera Indians are beautiful and unique people. Formerly known as Choco Indians, they live today very much as they did during the days of Christopher Columbus. The Embera tribe is around 15,000, inhabiting the Darien rainforest of Panama. The Wounaan tribe is only about 2,600 strong, but they too live in the Darien rainforest. The culture of both tribes is that of a river basin, living in the forest territory.

One of the most fascinating aspects of these people is their contribution to the making of modern day pharmaceuticals. With incredible botanical knowledge from living in the rainforest, their expertise has been unrivaled. Today, you can visit this rainforest and see the magnificent flowers along the jungle trek for yourself. In fact, you can take tours that will show you how to paint your body in the same way as the Embera Indians do, using Jagua, which is a natural type of fruit dye. Then, the handicrafts made by the Indians are incredible.

Considered master artisans, these tribes make beautiful baskets and woodcarvings that cannot be topped. The Embera people also use woodcarving for everyday life such as making canoes, weapons, paddles, furniture, and so on. However, they now also carve tagua, which is called “vegetable ivory”. From this material, the Indians have made some of the most imaginative art you have ever seen, inspired by the animals and plants found within the rainforest.

Taking the tagua, they sand it down and then use various types of lacquer or varnish to create sheen. The tagua is ivory colored with dark brown or gray skin. In addition, the Embera Indians can use natural extracts taken from the earth and plants to create vibrant colors, which are then used to dye the baskets. For the pieces of handiwork with jaguar details, only top quality Indian ink is used.

Although both Wounaan and Embera Indians now exist in a modern village, they once lived a very primitive life in the rainforest. They remained in the rainforest until the early part of the 16th century until the Spaniards arrived. Although they were far from the comforts of civilization, they were happy people, living their own life in the only way they knew. Their tribes were peaceful and harmonious. As proud and peaceful people, they do tend to be a bit suspicious of people from the outside but once their trust is gained, they are very genuine.

If you visit the village, be aware that both men and women walk around without much clothing so you know what to expect, as this is simply their way of living. The men are muscular with straight black hair and earrings. Some men do wear a g-string but not much else. The body is often heavily painted using dye from the genip tree. For red paint, achiote is used and for orange, seed pod.

Nomadic hunters and gatherers were the first people of Peru. They lived along the coastal regions in caves and in fact, one of the oldest caves called Pikimachay can be dated back to 12,000 BC. Then sometime around 4,000 BC, the nomadic people began planning crops to include squash, beans, chili peppers, and cotton. As time progressed, they learned more skills to include agriculture, weaving, and even religion.

Then the Chavin disappeared around 300 BC but over the following centuries, other people came and went to include the Nazca, Paracas, Necropolis, Salinar, and Wari. In the early 15th century, the majority of Peru was controlled by the Inca Empire, with its influence stretching past Peru into Chile and Colombia. Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador started to explore all of the coastal regions of Peru between 1526 and 1528 where he discovered the many riches of the Empire.

From there, Pizarro went back to Spain where he gathered men and headed up an expedition taking them back to Peru. He entered the northern part of the country in a city called Cajamarca. Soon after in 1533, Pizarro captured the Inca Emperor, Atahualpa. Lima, Peru remained a very peaceful place for the next 200 years, becoming a hub for commercial, social, and political activities.

Located in the western portion of South America, Peru has several borders, Bolivia to the southwest, Chile to the south, Colombia to the north, Brazil to the northeast, and Ecuador to the northwest. The fascinating thing about Peru is that it has three very distinct regions, which include the Andean mountain range, the Amazon basin, and a narrow, coastal belt.

The Andes are comprised of two primary ranges - Oriental and Cordillera Occidental. However, reaching a staggering 22,000 feet about sea level is the largest mountain in Peru, the Huascarian. As you travel through Lima, you will immediately be impressed with the abundance of life. For instance, there are sea lions, pelicans, terns, flamingos, penguins, llama, bears, jaguars, hummingbirds, condors, alpaca, and the list goes on. To complement the wildlife is the beauty of Lima in the form of flora. In addition to hardy plants growing in the woodlands, there are national parks filled with flowers, trees, and lush greenery.

When visiting Lima, Peru, you will have your choice of two seasons. The first is the wet season and the second is the dry season. Typically, the western Andean slopes and coast are dry. The summer months for these regions start in December and run through April. The remainder of the year, the people of Lima experience what is called Garua, or coastal fog, which literally blocks out the sun, which is seldom seen. Then in the Andes, the dry season runs from May to September, again with the wet season spanning out over the remainder of the year. Then if you go to the eastern slopes, you would find dry months similar to those in the highlands and the wet season starting in January, running to April.

Although there are so many things that draw people to Lima, the natural beauty is at the top of the list. People notice that unlike other cities in Peru and South America, Lima seems to be more laid back, calmer environment where people do not stress. In fact, rather than feel like a larger metropolitan, Lima has the feel of a cluster of smaller towns. Some of the finest entertainment is at the Penas, which are bars where the famous folk and Creole music can be heard. If you prefer, you can visit any number of open marketplaces and of course, dine at some of the most amazing restaurants.

Other opportunities include some great museums where you can enjoy a glance into the past life of the Peruvian people. Then if you head to the south portion of Lima, you will discover some gorgeous white beaches and beautiful, cool waters. Although there are few amenities on these beaches, you will find a few cafes. If you love solitude, then the El Silencio beach is the place to visit. Lima, Peru is a living art gallery consisting of stone craft, textiles, metalwork, and fine pottery.

This city has a unique blend of Spanish colonization coupled with strong native Indian influences. There are beautiful paintings that mimic European style, amazing architecture, and the distinctive Cuzco style. Additionally, the people of Peru enjoy the popular Peruvian music, which is almost all, folk type music, and varied literature. The food in Lima is absolutely, delicious but the spices and flavors vary depending on the region. One of the best is the seafood, which comes fresh from the coast. Other foods that Westerners have a difficult time with is roasted guinea pig but in Peru, it is a coveted delicacy.

Other common foods found in Lima include chopped steak fried with onions, known as Lomo Saltado, White Sea bass that has been marinated in lemon, chili, and onions, called Cebiche de Corvina, and a unique spiced noodle soup made with egg, vegetables, and milk, known as Sopa a la Criolla. The flavors are rich, interesting, and very satisfying. When visiting, consider going during festival times. For instance, in the months of February and March, there is the Carnaval, in June Inti Raymi, an outstanding Inca festival, July the celebration of Peru’s Independence, and then in November, Puno Day, a festival featuring flamboyant costumes and street music and dancing.

The Pampas (from Quechua, meaning “plain”) are the fertile South American lowlands that include the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, and Córdoba, most of Uruguay, and the southernmost end of Brazil, covering more than 750,000 km² (290,000 square miles). These vast plains are only interrupted by the low Ventania mountain range near Bahía Blanca (Argentina), with 1,300 m height. The climate is mild, with precipitation of 600 to 1,200 mm, more or less evenly distributed through the year, making the soils appropriate for agriculture.

Frequent fires ensure that only small plants such as grasses flourish and trees are exceptional. The dominant vegetation types are grassy prairie and grass steppe in which numerous species of the grass genus Stipa are particularly conspicuous. ‘Pampas Grass’ (Cortaderia selloana) is an iconic species of the Pampas. Vegetation typically includes perennial grasses and herbs. Different strata of grasses occur due to gradients of water availability. The Pampas are home to a wide variety of native species, although there is an almost absolute lack of native trees, except along main watercourses.

Its climate, as in the mid-latitudes, is naturally changeable. Winters are cool to mild and summers are very warm and humid. Rainfall is fairly uniform throughout the year but is a little heavier during the summer. Annual rainfall is heaviest near the coast and decreases gradually further inland. Rain during the late spring and summer usually arrives in the form of brief heavy showers and thunderstorms. More general rainfall occurs the remainder of the year as cold fronts and storm systems move through. Although cold spells during the winter often send nighttime temperatures below freezing, snow is quite rare. In most winters, a few light snowfalls occur over inland areas. Snow is extremely rare near the coast.

Central Argentina boasts a successful agricultural business, with crops grown on the Pampas south and west of the Buenos Aires. In particular, the harvested area of soybeans is on pace to set a record, according to the Food and Agricultural Service. Much of the area is also used for grazing cattle. These farming regions (i.e., modified of disturbed Pampas) are particularly susceptible to flooding during heavy rainfall. In October 2001 an estimated 3.5 million hectares (35,000 km²) of the pampas were flooded, with thousands of hectares of fields and grazing lands being submerged. Buenos Aires reported nearly 250 mm (9.84 in) of rainfall during that month, which is more than double the normal amount.

Located in South America, the Andes Mountain stretches from the north to the south, going along the western coast some 4,500 miles, making this one of the longest and highest mountain ranges in the entire world. When visiting South America, this area is one that you certainly should see. Keep in mind that because some places in the Andes are closer to the equator than other places, the climate is not the same.

This particular mountain range is divided into three specific and natural regions. First, there is the south, second the central region, and third, the northern region. In the southern region, you will find that the temperatures are quite a bit colder due to the mountains being closer to the Antarctic. However, if you were to visit the northern region, you would notice temperatures being hot because the mountain range is closer to the equator.

Because of high humidity levels in the northern ranges, the Andes Mountains has beautiful rainforests. To keep everything so magnificent and green, this region also gets a lot of rain. Typically, when people visit the Andes Mountains, they will head to the northern region because it is far more beautiful, there is more to see, and the temperatures are more pleasant whereas in the southern region, you see few people.

Now, if you head to the central region of the Andes Mountains, the weather tends to be more on the mild side since it is a neutral location. This too is a beautiful part of the mountain range to visit. Interestingly, the Puya Raimondii, which is the largest herb on the planet, grows in the central region, surviving and flourishing at elevations of 13,000 feet above sea level. In fact, this particular herb has been growing in this are for the past century. With this, the leaves grow out from one stem, which means the moisture can run from the leaves to the plant’s base so during drought, the plant easily survives.

You will find that a large number of the plants growing in the Andes stay small, which is their natural process for conserving needed energy. Therefore, you will often find plants that are stiff but strong so they can handle cold weather and frost. In addition to plants, the Andes Mountains are also home to many different species of birds. For example, you will find the Condor, Flamingo, Hillstar Hummingbird, and Andean Flicker. Then, there is magnificent wildlife such as the Red Perll, Llamas, the Mountain Lion, the Speckled Bear, Andean Iguana, and the Giant Toad.

Unfortunately, with too much logging, some areas of the Andes Mountains have experienced terrible destruction. With that, the animals have lost shelter and food. Then when you add in the fact that more and more people are now mining for gold, silver, and copper, the soil in some areas has become eroded, this time damaging plants. Even with these challenges, the Andes Mountains are spectacular.

Now, while many areas of the Andes Mountains are perfectly safe for traveling, some areas of South America are considered dangerous due to drug problems and guerilla activity. However, if you work with a reputable and skilled guide, and follow information provided by your travel agent, you will do find. Once there, you will be amazed at how beautiful this area of the world is, simply a slice of heaven waiting to be explored.

Patagonia is that portion of South America which, to the east of the Andes, lies mainly south of the Rio Negro (41°S), and, to the west of the Andes, south of (42°S). The Chilean portion embraces the southern part of the region of Los Lagos, and the regions of Aysen and Magallanes (excluding the portion of Antarctica claimed by Chile). East of the Andes the Argentine portion of Patagonia is divided into four provinces:

A lake in Neuquén, Argentine portion of PatagoniaNeuquén, covering 36,324 sq. miles, including the triangle between the rivers Limay and Neuquen, and extending southward to the northern shore of Lake Nahuel-Huapi (41°S) and northward to the Rio Colorado;

Río Negro, covering 78,383 sq. miles, extending from the Atlantic to the Cordillera of the Andes, to the north of 42°S; Chubut, covering 86,751 sq. miles, embracing the region between 42° and 46°S; and Santa Cruz, which stretches from the last-named parallel as far south as the dividing line with Chile, and between Point Dungeness and the watershed of the Cordillera: an area of 94,186 sq. miles.

The general character of the Argentine portion of Patagonia is for the most part a region of vast steppe-like plains, rising in a succession of abrupt terraces about 100 meters (330 feet) at a time, and covered with an enormous bed of shingle almost bare of vegetation. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of brackish and fresh water. Towards the Andes the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant, acquiring the characteristics of the flora of the western coast, and consisting principally of southern beech and conifers.

Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the principal are the Gualichu, south of the Rio Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta (through which previously flowed the waters of lake Nahuel Huapi, which now feed the river Limay); the Senguerr, the Deseado. Besides these transverse depressions (some of them marking lines of ancient inter-oceanic communication), there are others which were occupied by more or less extensive lakes, such as the Yagagtoo, Musters, and Colhue Huapi, and others situated to the south of Puerto Deseado, in the centre of the country. In the central region volcanic eruptions, which have taken part in the formation of the plateau from the Tertiary period down to the present era, cover a large part with basaltic lava-caps; and in the western third more recent glacial deposits appear above the lava. There, in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks, uplifted by the Tertiary granite, erosion, caused principally by the sudden melting and retreat of the ice, aided by tectonic changes, has scooped out a deep longitudinal depression, which generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, while on the west of these there is a similar longitudinal depression all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia.

The geological constitution is in accordance with the orographic physiognomy. The Tertiary plateau, flat on the east, gradually rising on the west, shows Upper Cretaceous caps at its base. First come Lower Cretaceous hills, raised by granite and dioritic rocks, undoubtedly of Tertiary origin, as in some cases these rocks have broken across the Tertiary beds, so rich in mammal remains; then follow, on the west, metamorphic schists of uncertain age; then quartzites appear, resting directly on the primitive granite and gneiss which form the axis of the Cordillela. Porphyritic rocks occur between the schists and the quartzites. The Tertiary deposits are greatly varied in character, and there is considerable difference of opinion concerning the succession and correlation of the beds.

Glaciers occupy the valleys of the main chain and some of the lateral ridges of the Cordillera, and descend to lakes San Martín, Viedma, Argentino and others in the same locality, strewing them with icebergs. In Patagonia an immense ice-sheet extended to the east of the present Atlantic coast during the first ice age, at the close of the Tertiary epoch, while, during the second glacial age in modern times, the terminal moraines have generally stopped, 30 miles (50 km) in the north and 50 miles (80 km) in the south, east of the summit of the Cordillera. These ice-sheets, which scooped out the greater part of the longitudinal depressions, and appear to have rapidly retreated to the point where the glaciers now exist, did not, however, in their retirement fill up with their detritus the fjords of the Cordillera, for these are now occupied by deep lakes on the east, and on the west by the Pacific channels, some of which are as much as 250 fathoms (460 m) in depth, and soundings taken in them show that the fjords are as usual deeper in the vicinity of the mountains than to the west of the islands. Several of the high peaks are still active volcanoes.

In so far as its main characteristics are concerned, Patagonia seems to be a portion of the Antarctic continent, the permanence of which dates from very recent times, as is evidenced by the apparent recent emergence of the islets around Chiloé, and by the general character of the pampean formation. Some of the promontories of Chiloé are still called huapi, the Araucanian equivalent for “islands”; and this may perhaps be accepted as perpetuating the recollection of the time when they actually were islands. They are composed of caps of shingle, with great, more or less rounded boulders, sand and volcanic ashes, precisely of the same form as occurs on the Patagonian plateau. From an examination of the pampean formation it is evident that in recent times the land of the province of Buenos Aires extended farther to the east, and that the advance of the sea, and the salt-water deposits left by it when it retired, forming some of the lowlands which occur on the littoral and in the interior of the pampas, are much more recent phenomena; and certain caps of shingle, derived from rocks of a different class from those of the neighbouring hills, which are observed on the Atlantic coasts of the same province, and increase in quantity and size towards the south, seem to indicate that the caps of shingle which now cover such a great part of the Patagonian territory recently extended farther to the east, over land which has now disappeared beneath the sea, while other marine deposits along the same coasts became converted into bays during the subsequent advance of the sea. There are besides, in the neighbourhood of the present coast, deposits of volcanic ashes, and the ocean throws up on its shores blocks of basaltic lava, which in all probability proceed from eruptions of submerged volcanoes now extinct. One fact, however, which apparently demonstrates with greater certainty the existence in recent times of land that is now lost, is the presence of remains of pampean mammals in Pleistocene deposits in the bay of San Julian and in Santa Cruz. The animals undoubtedly reached these localities from the east; it is not at all probable that they advanced from the north southwards across the plateau intersected at that cime by great rivers and covered by the ice-sheet. With the exception of the discoveries at the inlet of Ultima Esperanza, which is in close communication with the Atlantic valley of Río Gallegos, none of these remains have been discovered in the Andean regions.

On the upper plains of Neuquen territory thousands of cattle can be fed, and the forests around Lakes Tiaful and Nahuel-Huapi yield large quantities of valuable timber. The Neuquen river is not navigable, but as its waters are capable of being easily dammed in places, large stretches of land in its valley are utilized; but the lands on each side of its lower part are of little commercial value. As the Cordillera is approached the soil becomes more fertile, and suitable districts for the rearing of cattle and other agricultural purposes exist between the regions that surround the Tromen volcano and the first ridges of the Andes. Chos Malal, the capital of the territory, is situated in one of these valleys. More to the west is the mining region, in great part unexplored, but containing deposits of gold, silver, copper and lignite. In the centre of the territory, also in the neighbourhood of the mining districts, are the valleys of Norquin and Las Lajas, the general camp of the Argentine army in Patagonia, with excellent timber in the forest on the Andean slope. The wide valleys occur near Rio Malleo, Lake Huechulafquen, the river Chimehuin, and Vega de Chapelco, near Lake Lacar, where are situated villages of some importance, such as Junin de los Andes and San Martin de los Andes. Close to these are the famous apple orchards supposed to have been planted by the Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries. The river Collon Cura, the principal affluent of the river Limay, drains these regions. Lake Lacar is now a contributary of the Pacific, its outlet having been changed to the west, owing to a passage having been opened through the Cordillera.

The Rio Negro runs along a wide transverse depression. the middle part of which is followed by the railway which runs to the settlement of Neuquen at the confluence of the rivers Limay and Neuquen. In this depression are several settlements, among them Viedma, the capital of the Rio Negro territory, Pringles, General Conesa, Choele Choel and General Roca. To the south of the Rio Negro the Patagonian plateau is intersected by the depressions of the Gualicho and Maquinchao, which in former times directed the waters of two great rivers (now disappeared) to the gulf of San Matias, the first-named depression draining the network of the Collon Cura and the second the Nahuel Huapi lake system. In 42°S there is a third broad transverse depression, apparently the bed of another great river, now perished, which carried to the Atlantic the waters of a portion of the eastern slope of the Andes, between 41° and 42°30;S.

Chubut territory presents the same characteristics as the Rio Negro territory. Rawson, the capital, is situated at the mouth of the river Chubut on the Atlantic (42°30′S). The town was founded in 1865 by a group of colonists from Wales, assisted by the Argentine government; and its prosperity has led to the foundation of other important centres in the valley, such as Trelew and Gaiman, which is connected by railway with Puerto Madryn on Bahia Nueva. Here is the seat of the governor of the territory, and by 1895 the inhabitants of this part of the territory, composed principally of Argentines, Welsh and Italians, numbered 2585. The valley has been irrigated and cultivated, and produces the best wheat of the Argentine Republic. Between the Chubut and the Senguerr there are vast stretches of fertile land, spreading over the Andean region to the foot of the Cordillera and the lateral ridges of the Pre-Cordillera, and filling the basins of some desiccated lakes, which have been occupied since 1885, and farms and colonies founded upon them. The chief of these colonies is that of 16 de Octubre, formed in 1886, mainly by the inhabitants of Chubut colony, in the longitudinal valley which extends to the eastern foot of the Cordillera. Other rivers in this territory flow into the Pacific through breaches in the Cordillera, e.g. the upper affluents of the Futaleufu, Palena and Rio Cisnes. The principal affluent of the Palena, the Carrenleufu, carries off the waters of Lake General Paz, situated on the eastern slope of the Cordillera. Rio Pico, an affluent of the same river, receives nearly the whole of the waters of the extensive undulating plain which lies between the Rio Tecka and the Rio Senguerr to the east of the Cordillera, while the remainder are carried away by the affluents of Rio Jehua: the Cherque, Omkel, and Appeleg. This region contains auriferous drifts, but these, like the auriferous deposits, veins of galena and lignite in the mountains farther west which flank the Cordillera, have not been properly investigated. At Lake Fontana there are auriferous drifts and lignite deposits which abound in fossil plants of the Cretaceous age. The streams which form the rivers Mayo and Chalia join the tributaries of the Rio Aisen, which flows into the Pacific, watering in its course extensive and valuable districts where colonization has been initiated by Argentine settlers. Colonies have also been formed in the basin of Lakes Musters and Colhué Huapi; and on the coasts near the Atlantic, along Bahia Camarones and the Gulf of San Jorge, there are extensive farms.

The territory of Santa Cruz is arid along the Atlantic coast and in the central portion between 46° and 50°S. With the exception of certain valleys at Puerto Deseado (Port Desired) and in the transverse basins which occur as far south as Puerto San Julian, and which contain several cattle farms, few spots are capable of cultivation, the pastures being poor, water insufficient and salt lagunas fairly numerous. Puerto Deseado is the outlet for the produce of the Andean region situated between Lakes Buenos Aires and Pueyrredon.

Into this inlet there flowed at the time of the conquest a voluminous river, which subsequently disappeared, but returned again to its ancient bed, owing to the river Fenix, one of its affluents, which had deviated to the west, regaining its original direction. Lake Buenos Aires, the largest lake in Patagonia, measuring 120 kilometers (75 miles) in length, poured its waters into the Atlantic even in post-Glacial times by means of the river Deseado; and it is so depicted on the maps of the 17th and 18th centuries; and so too did Lake Pueyrredon, which, through the action of erosion, now empties itself westward, through the river Las Heras, into the Calen inlet of the Pacific, in 48°S.

San Julian on Puerto San Julian, where Ferdinand Magellan wintered, was the centre of a cattle farming colony, and colonists have pushed into the interior up the valley of a now extinct river which in comparatively recent times carried down to Puerto San Julian the waters of Lakes Volcan, Beigrano, Azara, Nansen, and some other lakes which now drain into the river Mayer and so into Lake San Martin. The valleys of the Rio Chico throughout their whole extent, as well as those of Lake Shehuen, afford excellent grazing, and around Lakes Belgrano, Burmeister and Rio Mayer and San Martin there are spots suitable for cultivation. In the Cretaceous hills which flank the Cordillera important lignite beds and deposits of mineral oils have been discovered. The Rio Santa Cruz, originally explored by Captain Fitzroy and Charles Darwin, is an important artery of communication between the regions bordering upon the Cordillera and the Atlantic. In Santa Cruz bay an important trade centre has been established. But the present cattle region par excellence of Patagonia is the department of Rio Gallegos, the farms extending from the Atlantic to the Cordillera. Puerto Gallegos itself is an important business center, which bids fair to rival the Chilean colony of Punta Arenas, on the Straits of Magellan. Owing to the produce of the cattle farms established there, the working of coal in the neighborhood, and the export of timber from the surrounding forests, the town of Punta Arenas is in a flourishing condition. Its population in 1911 numbered about 4000. But the colonization of the western (Chilean) coast has generally failed, principally owing to the adverse climatic conditions of the Cordillera in those latitudes.

Climate

The climate is less severe than was supposed by early travelers. The east slope is warmer than the west, especially in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches its shores, whereas a cold current washes the west coast. At Puerto Montt, on the inlet behind Chiloé Island. the mean annual temperature is 11 °C (52°F) and the average extremes 25.5 °C (78°F) and -1.5 °C (29.5°F), whereas at Bahia Blanca near the Atlantic coast and just outside the northern confines of Patagooia the annual temperature is 15C (59°F) and the range much greater. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean temperature is 6 °C (43°F) and the average extremes 24.5 °C (76°F) and -2 °C (28°F). The prevailing winds are westerly, and the westward slope has a much heavier precipitation than the eastern; thus at Puerto Montt the mean annual precipitation is 2.46 m (97 inches), but at Bahia Blanca it is 480 mm (19 inches). At Punta Arenas it is 560 mm (22 inches).

Fauna

The guanaco, the puma, the zorro or Brazilian fox (Canis azarae), the zorrino or Mephitis patagonica (a kind of skunk), and the tuco-tuco or Ctenomys niagellanicus (a rodent) are the most characteristic mammals of the Patagonian plains. The guanaco roam in herds over the country and form with the rhea (Rhea americana, and more rarely Rhea darwinii) the chief means of subsistence for the natives, who hunt them on horseback with dogs and bolas. Bird-life is often wonderfully abundant. The carancho or carrion-hawk (Polyborus tharus) is one of the characteristic objects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence of long-tailed green parakeets (Conurus cyanolysius) as far south as the shores of the strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators; and hummingbirds may be seen flying amidst the falling snow. Of the many kinds of water-fowl it is enough to mention the flamingo, the upland goose, and in the strait the remarkable steamer duck.

History

Patagonia was discovered in 1520 by Ferdinand Magellan, who on his passage along the coast named many of the more striking features — Gulf of San Matias, Cape of 11,000 Virgins (now simply Cape Virgenes). Patagonia means ‘land of the big feet’. Legends say that Magellan and his crew saw a tribe of nine-foot tall giants with big feet. He named the tribe the Patagons or big feet. Later explorers confirmed the existence of and made drawings of the Patagons. Cortés also claimed to see a tribe of giants of the same height in the Andes.

By 1611 the Patagonian god Setebos (Settaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the hearers of the Tempest. Rodrigo de Isla, despatched inland in 1535 from San Matias by Alcazava Sotomayor (on whom western Patagonia had been conferred by the king of Spain), was the first to traverse the great Patagonian plain, and, but for the mutiny of his men, he would have struck across the Andes to the Chilean side. Pedro de Mendoza, on whom the country was next bestowed, lived to found Buenos Aires, but not to carry his explorations to the south. Alonzo de Camargo (1539), Juan Ladrilleros (1557) and Hurtado de Mendoza (1558) helped to make known the western coasts, and Sir Francis Drake’s voyage in 1577 down the eastern coast through the strait and northward by Chile and Peru was memorable for several reasons; but the geography of Patagonia owes more to Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa (1579-1580), who, devoting himself especially to the south-west region, made careful and accurate surveys. The Spanish government neglected the settlement that he founded at Nombre de Dios and San Felipe, and the latter was in such a miserable state when Thomas Cavendish visited it in 1587 that he called it Port Famine. The district in the neighborhood of Puerto Deseado, explored by John Davis about the same period, was taken possession of by Sir John Narborough in the name of King Charles II of England in 1669. In the second half of the 18th century knowledge of Patagonia was augmented by Byron (1764-1765), Samuel Wallis (1766) and L.A. de Bougainville (1766); Thomas Falkner, a Jesuit who resided near forty years in those parts, published his Description of Patagonia (Hereford, 1774); Francesco Viedma founded El Carmen, and Antonio advanced inland to the Andes (1782); and Basilio Villarino ascended the Rio Negro (1782). The Adventure and Beagle expeditions under Philip King (1826-1830) and Robert Fitzroy (1832-1836) were of first-rate importance, the latter especially from the participation of Charles Darwin; but of the interior of the country nothing was observed except 200 miles (320 km) of the course of the Santa Cruz. Captain George Chaworth Musters in 1869 wandered in company with a band of Tehuelches through the whole length of the country from the strait to the Manzaneros in the north-west, and collected a great deal of information about the people and their mode of life.

When it comes to rich legacies left behind by pre-Hispanic cultures, Peru lands at the top of the list. At the hub of Peru is a city called Cuzco, which is the ancient capital of the Inca Empire. Cuzco, Peru is known as the archaeological capital of all South America, which is a complex culture that comes from the Inca and Spanish. In Cuzco, you can see this amazing blend by the Spanish colonial architecture and the famous Inca ruins.

Starting in the 14th century, Cuzco was the capital of the Incan Empire. However, in 1533, Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish leader came and conquered Peru, following a very difficult voyage that took him and his entourage through Panama and then over the Andes mountains. Once the Spanish arrived, they found massive riches to include gold. This incredible find pushed Peru into a new era that would make history.

One of the most fascinating aspects of the Incan capital is the architecture. There, you will discover massive cut-stone blocks that fit perfectly but without modern day mortar. One of the buildings is the temple of the sun called Coricancha, along with a fortress known as Sacsahuaman, both built with boulders weighing more than 190 tons. Now, consider that during this era, the people had no backhoes, no cranes, and no modern equipment to lift such enormous weight; we can only imagine the amazing challenge to complete the structures, and then the celebration once completed.

Keep in mind that the city of Cuzco was established in the form of a puma, using the fortress as the head and the Tullumayo and Huatanay Rivers as the tail. In addition, ancient Cuzco was located in the exact place as the modern city square, although twice as large. Then all around the palaces of the past kings was gravel, which was the site of important ceremonies. There are four roads going to the four corners, which were eventually paved. With so much attention to detail and the unbelievable engineering that went into building this city, it was breathtakingly beautiful.

You will discover that the city of Cuzco is also spelled in a number of ways to include Cusco, Qozqo, and Qosqo. However, no matter the name or the spelling, this ancient, Incan Empire capital today stands as a blend of modern buildings and amenities with colonial additions. Interestingly, the spelling “Qosqo” translates to “bellybutton” or “navel” in Quechua, which is a beautiful valley that supported civilization prior to the Incas. As visitors came to the city, they would hear chants of “Ama Sua, Ama Quella, Amam Lulla, which means, “Don’t lie, don’t steal, and don’t be lazy”.

When visiting Cuzco, Peru, you will be amazed and impressed at the artistry and techniques used to create this empire. Most of the structures have outlived earthquakes, living on for future generations to enjoy. The plaza was the core of the Suvos, or Four Regions of the Inca Empire, which stretches from Quito, Ecuador all the way to northern Chile. There in the plaza stood ceremonial and official buildings along with residences of the rulers. From this vantage point, fast runners could take messages from the center of the city out in all directions to form a network of communication.

All around Cuzco are varied populations to include artisan, agricultural, and industrial. Sadly, the Spanish destroyed a good number of the structures and what couldn’t be demolished was used to build churches and other buildings, many that still exist today. Getting to Cuzco, Peru is actually easy. Once there, you will find the climate to be very comfortable but keep in mind the rainy season is from November to March.

In addition to the ruins, the streets of the city are quaint, dotted with colonial red roofs, blue doors, and whitewashed walls. The people are hard working and warm, and very interested in outside visitors. In the city, there are great places to visit such as the San Blas church, the Cathedral, and the Art School. Other attractions worth seeing while in Cuzco, Peru include Qorikancha, the Sun Temple, which is best viewed at night when it is fully illuminated and the La Compania Church, a true masterpiece.

You might also plan a trip to Q’engo, a temple dedicated to Mother Earth, Puca Pukara, a fortress watchtower that has an amazing view, Lago, Lanlakuyoq, and Kusilluchayoq, believe to be sites used for ceremonies or observations, and the incredible Machu Picchu, one of the most magical places on earth. You can also visit the Sunday market called Chinceros located in the center of town, the Urubamba River Valley, which winds from Pisac to Ollantaytamob, the salt flats called Maras, or you might simply enjoy hiking or rafting down the Vilcamayu River.

The carnival is a celebration that is seen throughout South America, with festivities somewhat unique from country to country. For four days, starting on a Saturday and ending on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras), you will have the most amazing time imaginable. As an example, in Rio de Janeiro, the carnival occurs at the peak time during the summer months. Literally thousands of people come from around the globe to watch and participate in the festivities.

Although the origin of this carnival is unknown, most experts agree the event started as some type of pagan celebration somewhere in Greece or Rome. Carnival balls were introduced from Italy in the late 19th century although they were at their most popular from 1930 through the 1950s. In fact, two of the most famous of these balls include those held at the Municipal Theater and the Copacabana Palace.

In addition, during the 1930s the Samba Parade began where it eventually settled at the Sambodrome in the downtown area, in 1984. The Samba is of West African heritage that consists of rhythmic beating of the drums that get your feet moving and soon, dancing. All along the parade route will be Escola dancers displaying their talent to the beat of the Samba drums.

Although the Samba Parade is a major part of the carnival festivities, there are many other things going on. For instance, you can get involved with Banda de Ipanema, which was founded in 1964 and draws in more than 15,000 people. When celebrating the carnival in Brazil, the Portuguese tradition is called Entrudo, which involves throwing flower and mud at unsuspecting spectators. The streets are flooded with all types of colorful parades, some that compete against each other.

Remember, different countries and cities have their own unique style of the carnival. Take Salvador for example, there the music is provided by groups known as Trios Electricos. The sound and volume is so intense that it can almost be deafening. Then in Recife, the music style is called Frevo, and in Bahia, you hear music that sounds more like religious tunes called Afoxe.

If you plan to go watch the proceedings of the Carnival while in South America, we highly recommend that you dress in comfortable clothing and most importantly, blend in. Remember, if you look like a tourist, you will have flour and mud thrown on you. Therefore, the more casual you can dress the better. Additionally, because the crowds are so large, there are unfortunately some pickpockets so keep anything of value at home or at the hotel.

Colombia is a magnificent place that offers rainforests, beaches, mountain ranges, beautiful cities, and warm, inviting people. Although there are many incredible places in the world, Colombia deserves to rank near or at the top. Unfortunately, ongoing cocaine cartels and guerilla war has put a damper on travel and even given Colombia the nickname “Locombia”, which translates to “mad country.”

Sadly, still today an average of 3,000 people are abducted, most being officials. However, this violence has even extended to innocent backpackers out for an adventure to discover the backcountry. Even so, by staying within the safe zones in the major cities and tourist areas, and avoiding the parts of Colombia known for danger, you can travel there to enjoy the country’s beauty and rich culture. We recommend you pay attention to any travel news and/or alerts, and work with a reputable travel agent who will steer you in the right direction.

To ensure your safety, remember that travel to the urban areas by any means of transportation is considered highly dangerous. Additionally, when visiting Colombia, do not take or wear any expensive jewelry or clothing, leave high priced cameras, shoes, and purses at home, stay away from any type of public gatherings or crowds, and use the local police only if absolutely necessary in that many have reputations for being two-sided. Finally, regarding safety, if you were approached by a stranger offering to sell you a drink or cigarettes, never accept them as they could be laced with a soporific drug called Borrachero.

In the early years, you would see scattered pockets of various cultures to include the Muisca, Quimbaya, San Agustin, Sinu, Tayrona, and Tierradentro. Many of these tribes were highly skilled in making pottery and gold work. In fact, through years of excavations, some of these treasures have been uncovered in burial chambers, along with magnificent rock paintings, giving us a better glimpse of life in the early, pre-Colombia times.

In 1499, a companion of Christopher Columbus named Alonso de Ojeda came to the Guajira Peninsula, which was the beginning of some of the largest number of expeditions. When the Spaniards arrived, they were merely tolerated by the Indians but when slavery began and land was confiscated, the Indians rebelled. Interestingly, much of modern day Colombia was conquered by the Spanish and in 1544, Colombia was incorporated into Peru. However, in 1739, Colombia split from Peru, becoming a part of the New Granada.

The Spanish took more than land and the Indian’s freedom, they also took over the commerce and taxes, which during the 18th century, led to a huge protest. During this time, autonomy occurred but not until 1819 was independence won. Even with this incredible victory, unrest continued over the years between the Liberals and Conservatives. Violence in Colombia had rose to an all-time high by 1990 due to the establishment of paramilitary death squads and the powerful drug cartels. However, the head of the Medellin cocaine cartel was captured in 1991 and a year later escaped but when found, he was assassinated.

One of the greatest challenges of Colombia today is the continuing unrest associated with drug trafficking. This internal conflict has placed this country among the 10 bloodiest places in the entire world. Keep in mind that while this country has struggled from the beginning, there are still wonderful people who want desperately to take back control. In fact, in an effort to help, the United States approved $1.3 billion in aid to support the government in winning the war against the drug cartels and guerrillas.

Again, if you stay within the safe zones, Colombia has much to offer, which includes a number of different ethnic groups that bring with them fabulous cultures, arts, and folklore. As the fourth largest country in all of South America yet the only one that has coastlines on both the Pacific and Caribbean oceans, this is a remarkable country with extreme diversity. Colombia borders with Panama to the northwest, Brazil to the southeast, Venezuela to the east, Peru to the south, and then Ecuador to the southwest.

You will notice that the western regions of Colombia are mountainous, with the Cordillera de los Andes running the entire length of South America, some 5,000 miles. In addition to the beautiful mountains, there are two valleys called Valle del Magdalena and Valle del Cauca. Then when you reach the territory to the east of the Andes, you will find that more than 50% is lowland covered with dense rainforest where rivers meander through.

Another interesting fact about Colombia is that this country has the highest number of animals and plants per unit area of any other country on the planet. For example, you would commonly see deer, armadillo, peccaries, tapirs, and jaguars, although numerous species of monkeys and bears also live in this country. In addition, more than 1,550 species of birds live in Colombia that ranges from the small hummingbird to the massive Andean condor. Marine life is also incredible with more than 130,000 classified plants. With 33 national parks, you can imagine the beauty.

Colombia is also very close to the equator, which means temperatures vary little. Now, as you climb high into the mountain regions, you will notice that for every 1,000 feet, the temperature will drop between five and seven degrees. Even so, this country offers no real universal seasonal pattern. While visiting Colombia, you can enjoy many things from festivals to sightseeing to dancing to eating incredible food. The fish is fantastic, as is the snorkeling and diving, all favorite pastimes of the locals. Again, just stay with educated guides or within the constraints of safe territory and you will have a magnificent time while in Colombia.

The Brazilian Carnival is an annual celebration, celebrated forty days before Easter (marking the start of Lent), in Brazil. It has some differences from its counterparts in Europe, as well there being variations across the large Brazilian territory. The Brazilian Carnival is known in Brazil simply as “carnaval”.

Despite the Catholic inspiration, Brazilian Carnival is celebrated more as a profane feast than a religious event. Its origins are European, by a kind of carnival called Introito (Latin for entrance). The entrudo, as it was known in Brazil, could have been characterized mainly as a joke: to throw water (and later, other things) in other people, to “purify the body”. The entrudo was prohibited, without success, in middle of the 19th Century, as it was considered violent by the upper classes (it is told that many people died from infections and other diseases, since even rotten fruits were sometimes thrown).

In the late 19th Century, the cord?(literally “laces” in Portuguese) were introduced in Rio de Janeiro, which consisted of groups of people that would walk on the streets playing music and dancing. The cord?were ancestors of the modern samba’s school.

The blocos (blocks), another name for the cord? are some of the current representations of the popular Brazilian Carnival. They are formed by people who dress in costumes according to certain themes, or to celebrate the carnival in specific ways. The schools of samba are truly organizations that work all year in order to prepare themselves for the samba schools parade.

The most international known festivity in Brazilian Carnival takes place in Rio de Janeiro, with its samba schools, blocos and bandas that occupy entire neighborhoods. In some cities of the Northeastern Region, such as Salvador, there is another form of the Brazilian Carnival: the Trio El鴲ico. A trio el鴲ico is an adapted truck, with giant speakers and a platform where musicians play songs of local genres such as Ax頭usic and Maracatu.

During the Carnival, a fat man is elected to represent the role of Rei Momo, the “king” of Carnival, whose rule is one of fun instead of that of everyday authorities.

For more than five centuries, Brazil has been a place of escape, a literal tropical paradise unlike any other place in South America. From the depths of the Amazon to the colorful celebrations, Brazil has and still is a land of mystery and intrigue. The Brazilian Indians were known for developing a very, centralized civilization. However, with the rough terrain of the jungle and the challenge of the humid and hot weather, very little was left behind for future generators to study. Even so, the few things that have been found include shell mounds, pottery, and even skeletons, each providing a small glimpse into the lives of these aboriginals.

Experts estimate that this first community within Brazil lived some six million years ago. Interestingly, today less than 100,000 people live in the jungle areas of Brazil, most deep into the interior where they are hard to reach and even harder to connect to. By 1500, a man by the name of Pedro Alvares Cabral sailed with 13 ships and 1,200 crewmembers from Lisbon to India. However, they accidentally arrived on the Brazilian coast close to today’s Porto Seguro. The interesting thing is that some people believe this was their intended target all along but regardless, the discovery was reported back to the King Joao III of Portugal who in 1531 sent the first settlers to this new country.

By 1534, with worry that other European countries would come, the coast was divided into 15 hereditary captaincies, all given to friends of the Crown. Over time and through various attempts, it was discovered that the land of Brazil was perfect for growing sugar cane. To meet the high demands of labor, the Indian population was enslaved, although many resisted. Soon, one of the most lucrative trades for the Brazilians was the sale of salves. These poor Indians were hunted down like animals in the interior and by the mid-1600s, they had been pushed as far as the Peruvian Andes in an attempt to avoid being captured.

Unfortunately, with the control of slaves and the exploits of the Brazilians, a large part of the interior of South American had gone over to Portuguese Brazil. From that time until the 17th century, the Indian slaves were replaced with African slaves who also resisted. Finding they were not nearly as vulnerable to European diseases, they were a better choice but even so, they too lived short lives. Soon, a community of runaway slaves called Ouilombos was created, which usually consisted of small groups that would hide deep in the forest.

Then in the late 17th century, another discovery was made in Brazil - gold. Once word leaked out, people came from all around, flooding the Brazilians and Portuguese. To help work the mines for gold, many African slaves were forced to dig, often dying in the mines through such long hours and harsh labor. Marching into Lisbon in 1807 was Napoleon Bonaparte and just two days after invading, Prince Regent, the Portuguese prince who one-day would become Dom Joao IV, left for Brazil. Arriving in Rio de Janeiro, the country of Brazil soon became the only New World colony serving as a European monarch seat.

The prince’s son, Pedro, was left behind but when his father returned in 1822, the son drew his sword, and cried out, “independence or death”. Prince Regent was a tired man and too weary to fight with his son, Brazil became an independent empire with no man ever losing his life. By the 19th century, a new crop was discovered, coffee, which soon replaced sugar cane as the primary export. Before long, coffee plantations were everywhere, again with slaves used for doing the hard labor. However, in 1888 when slavery was abolished, the work was taken over by European immigrants eager to work the estates.

Unfortunately, Brazil’s economy had weakened by 1929. With the government getting their hands into the plantations, opposition arose. However, trying to win the Liberal Election in 1930, they lost at which time the military took power, creating a new leader in Getulio Vargas. Although he remained in office for 24 years, he was forced out of office in 1954. From that time forward, changes were made and the economy began to rebuild. New leadership was appointed, land reform was established, education improved, and other changes were made but even so, many of the Brazilians today remain exceedingly poor.

When visiting Brazil, you will notice the vast diversity, one of the many things that make this such as fascinating country. One of the aspects of this country that pulls the diversity together is the love of music. For example, you will hear the Samba. Although it was at its greatest in the 1930s, the Samba is again a popular genre. A newer form of music hailing from the Caribbean is the Lambada, a beautiful, sensual rhythm that has become internationally popular. Literature is also an important part of the Brazilian culture, with many famous writers having written journals and books about the life of slavery.

However, when in Brazil, the greatest treat is the food. The people here live on Arroz, which is white rice, Feilao, black beans, Farinha, manioc flour, coupled with fish, chicken, or beef, usually a thick, juicy steak. Other dishes to try include Moqueca, a mouth-watering seafood stew that has been specially flavored with coconut milk and dende oil. Then there is okra and a variety of other vegetables mixed with onions, peppers, and shrimp, truly a magnificent dish. Other favorites include Feioada, bean, and meat stew, and Acaraje, which are beans that have been mashed with salt and onions, fried in the dende oil, and finally filed with manioc paste, dried shrimp, seafood, tomato sauce, and pepper - truly delicious.

As the largest country in the world, Brazil takes up about 50% of South America. This country borders Ecuador and Chile, and is a densely populated country. What you find there is four distinct regions that include the Atlantic seaboard, or the coastal ranges, the highland known as Planalto Brasileiro, the great depressions to the south with beautiful forest areas, scrubland, and low woods, and then finally, the massive Amazon Basin to the north, comprised of dense forest. Because of its diversity, you will enjoy the richness of the culture, which is seen in the architecture, the food, the dress, the festivals, and the people.

Bolivia is often referred to as the Tibet of the Americas, being the most isolated and highest of all Latin American republics. In addition, Bolivia is the most indigenous country on the continent, with more than 50% of the current population holding on dearly to their traditional culture. Sadly, Bolivia is also among the poorest of all South American countries but even so, there is richness in the history and culture. Best of all, this country boasts some of the most breathtaking Andean landscapes imaginable.

All of this coupled with the remnants of ancient civilizations, you would have to agree when you visit that this destination is actually a rich country, full of pride, adventure, and incredible things to do and see. Historians believe that civilization of this country dates back some 21,000 years. Of all eras, probably the Pre-Columbian were the most influential. For example, the Tiahuanaco people who lived on and around Lake Titicaca ruled from 600 to 1200 AD. Then, the Incas came, setting up a vast empire that consisted of Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and the northern part of Chile.

By 1531, the Spanish conquest was going strong, under the leadership of a man called Francisco Pizarro. Very quickly, the conquistadors had used the trust of the Indians, securing territory that would become known as Alto Peru. By 1544, a new discovery was made in silver. This helped boost the Spanish economy for more than 200 years but with the mining conditions being extremely hard, the majority of the enslaved Indian and African slaves died. Although Bolivia had been trying to gain independence for many years, it would not come until 1824 when Lieutenant Antonio Jose de Sucre fought in the Battle of Ayacucho. Just one year later, the country was formally declared its own republic.

After that, the territory of Bolivia quickly expanded. However, Chile wanted more land than it was given, leading to the War of the Pacific that lasted from 1879 to 1884. Chile came out the winner, claiming 527 miles of coastline, along with the Port of Antofagasta. Unfortunately, other countries to include Brazil, Peru, and Argentina followed suite, started chipping away at Bolivia’s land and by 1943, a huge border dispute erupted with Paraguay over oil deposits. That led to the Chaco War from 1932 to 1935, which created a tremendous amount of unrest and the change of reform-minded military leaders.

However, probably the most impacting development for Bolivia came in the form of the populist Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionarario, known more often as MNR. Under the leadership of Victor Paz Estenssoro in 1951, the MNR provoked an armed revolt that we know as the April Revolution of 1952. Although Bolivia’s military was defeated, in 1964, the MNR had been overthrown and in 1985, Estenssoro was defeated. Today, the country is beginning to strengthen although unemployment remains extremely low. The only serious challenge currently being faced is that Bolivia has a bad reputation for growing cocaine, which has hurt ties with the United States.

However, most areas of Bolivia are safe, as long as you stay within the right zones and pay attention to your guide’s advice. When visiting this beautiful country, you will enjoy wonderful music, which is at the heart of the Bolivian people. Interestingly, the sounds you hear are regional so when in the Andes, you would hear an almost haunting type of music, specifically in the Altiplano area whereas other areas such as Tarija have a lighter sound. To go along with the music are incredible dances. The Cueca, Tinku, and Auqui-auqui are all popular culture forms of dance that have changed very little over the past 3,000 years.

Of the people living in Bolivia, most speak Spanish although other languages include Aymara, which is the Altiplano language, or Quechua, the Incan language. The food in Bolivia is simply delicious. Most dishes come with meat, shredded lettuce, rice, and potatoes. However, to spice up any dish, a favorite type of hot sauce made from pepper pods and tomatoes is wonderful, called Llajhua. To wash down the food, most people drink wine, Bolivian beer, or a serious type of maize liquor!

Nestled between several countries to include Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Peru, and Paraguay, Bolivia is still the fifth largest country in all of South America. The regions are divided in fifths. First, you have the Altiplano, a densely populated area that features an 11,460-foot plateau stretching from the border of Peru north of Lake Titicaca and south to the border of Argentina, and the highlands, where you will enjoy the best climate. Then, you have the Yungas, which is actually a transition zone laying between the cold peaks of the Andes and the hot and humid Amazon rainforest. Next is Chaco, which is an uninhabited plain with hot, humid temperatures running along the Argentina and Paraguay borders. Finally, there are the underdeveloped savannas, scrubland, swampland, and rainforest of the Amazon Basin.

As a whole, the country of Bolivia is sparsely populated. Because of this, it is also one of the best places in all of South America for wildlife. For instance, it is common to see llama, jaguar, vicuna, anteater, tapir, alpaca, bear, turtle, alligator, capybara, condor, and rhea. You will also find a wide range of climates because of the diversity of the land. Typically, Bolivia stays more on the cool side with periods of rain usually from November to March. The colder cities include Potosi and La Paz while the region of Altiplano gets the most rain.

The people of Bolivia are very religions, often celebrating an Indian or Christian god, saint, or important political event. With this, you will find the country celebrating with a number of festivals such as the Fiesta de la Vifgen de Candelaria, which is a festival in honor of the virgin. Lasting a full week, you will enjoy food, drink, dancing, music, and many uninhibited people. Another exciting festival is the Festividad de Nuestro Senor Jesus del Gran Poder, which is held in May and June to honor Jesus Christ.

The country of Bolivia has much to offer visitors. You can enjoy some of the more popular areas such as La Paz, Lake Titicaca, definitely something to see, Sorata, and Cochabamba, or if you prefer, head to some of the more challenging areas to include Salar De Uyini, Laguna Colorada, and San Vicente, the place where the famous Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid lost their final battle. The scenery is magnificent and the people inviting.

The word, “Argentina” conjures up all kinds of thoughts, mostly of colorful costumes, sexy tango, Evita, gauchos, and romance. Although these are all attributes of a beautiful country, Argentina is also a country with a declining economy and unstable government. Even so, the mystic and romance of this country remains while boasting numerous cultural attractions and natural wonders. To the north, you will find vast deserts, the Iguazu Falls, which are truly magnificent, and an incredible and varied geography. For example, while in Argentina, you could travel to the capital city of Buenos Aires, a sophisticated area that is actually quite westernized or venture deep into tropical rainforests.

This country tucked into the shadows of the Andes Mountains is considered a safe destination for tourist travelers and an affordable place to visit. During the pre-Colombian days, Argentina was a farming community where sedentary Indians lived and hunted. Although the Spanish tried to invade the country, the Indians held strong to their resistance. Today, Buenos Aires is a bustling, successful city but it was not established until 1580. Even then, it remained a quiet place for about 200 years.

Then, with the Indian populations spread out and not enough work, huge cattle ranches were created, which are called Haciendas. With this, the legendary Gaucho (Argentina cowboy) would be formed. By 1776, Buenos Aires became Rio de la Plata’s capital, which showed that the domination of Spain was getting old and bothersome. Still unhappy with the interference seen by Spain, the revolution of 1810 began, which would eventually lead to Argentina’s independence in 1816.

As the 20th century rolled around, things continued to change, moving to new leadership. However, from 1976 to 1983, Argentina underwent what is known as the “Dirty War”. With this death squads operated, which resulted in 10,000 to 30,000 people disappearing. The best-known victims, called Madres de la Plaza de Maya, tried to keep public vigils for those whose mysteriously disappeared. With continuing internal conflict, the battle for the Malvinas and Falklands erupted. The result was hysteria in both countries, causing a British flotilla to sail around the world to save remaining areas of the map, although small.

While the British were able to stake claim on some of the land, the true ownership of the Malvinas is still today disputed. Interestingly, the Argentine foreign minister offered to buy the islands in 1995, offering each of the 2,000 islanders $800,000 in United States money but with the British believing that oilfields were located just offshore, more fighting is likely. Since that time, Argentina has undergone many leadership changes, economic struggles, and a prolonged recession.

However, when you visit Argentina today, in spite of the ongoing struggles of these people, you cannot help but feel overwhelmed by the beauty seen all around. For example, the country is permeated with magnificent art and architecture, and the lifestyle is festive and inviting. However, literature is strong in Argentina with many famous writers being born from this country. With such an interest in cultural trends, you will find wonderful art galleries and museums dotting the country, along with a lively theater district.

Even with such a stronghold of the arts, dance is what most people think of when they travel to Argentina, specifically the tango. This particular dance captures the minds and imagination of lovers from around the world. Sensual, the tango is regarded as one of the best dances in the world. However, you will also find folk music on the rise. In addition to music and dance, soccer is also a favorite pastime of Argentina, with the country taking the coveted World Cup in 1976 and again in 1986.

Most of the locals speak Spanish although the immigrants will also speak their native tongue. In addition, Italian, although not widely spoken, is understood. In all, 17 languages are used by the people of Argentina, some that include Guarani, Matacos, Quechua, and Tobas. Now, if you want to enjoy a steak, no place on the planet will you taste beef anything like that in Argentina. Favorite dishes include Parrillada, which are mixed grills but keep in mind that many times, every part of the animal will be used to include the udders, intestines, and so on. For dessert, the Helado, which is ice cream, is incredible.

Most people are surprised by the vastness of Argentina but considering that it is the eighth largest country in the world and the second largest in South America, it should come as no surprise. To the west of Argentina, you will find Chile, which is separated by the Andean Cordilleras range. Then to the north are Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The openness and mass land is so amazing and so diverse.

The way you look at this country is in four distinct provinces. These include the Andes to the west, the fertile lowland to the north, central Pampas, and then Patagonia. The interesting thing is that each of these regions is different. For instance, the Andes are comprised of grape-filled foothills and glacial mountains, the lowland is subtro