Both the Wounaan and Embera Indians are beautiful and unique people. Formerly known as Choco Indians, they live today very much as they did during the days of Christopher Columbus. The Embera tribe is around 15,000, inhabiting the Darien rainforest of Panama. The Wounaan tribe is only about 2,600 strong, but they too live in the Darien rainforest. The culture of both tribes is that of a river basin, living in the forest territory.

One of the most fascinating aspects of these people is their contribution to the making of modern day pharmaceuticals. With incredible botanical knowledge from living in the rainforest, their expertise has been unrivaled. Today, you can visit this rainforest and see the magnificent flowers along the jungle trek for yourself. In fact, you can take tours that will show you how to paint your body in the same way as the Embera Indians do, using Jagua, which is a natural type of fruit dye. Then, the handicrafts made by the Indians are incredible.

Considered master artisans, these tribes make beautiful baskets and woodcarvings that cannot be topped. The Embera people also use woodcarving for everyday life such as making canoes, weapons, paddles, furniture, and so on. However, they now also carve tagua, which is called “vegetable ivory”. From this material, the Indians have made some of the most imaginative art you have ever seen, inspired by the animals and plants found within the rainforest.

Taking the tagua, they sand it down and then use various types of lacquer or varnish to create sheen. The tagua is ivory colored with dark brown or gray skin. In addition, the Embera Indians can use natural extracts taken from the earth and plants to create vibrant colors, which are then used to dye the baskets. For the pieces of handiwork with jaguar details, only top quality Indian ink is used.

Although both Wounaan and Embera Indians now exist in a modern village, they once lived a very primitive life in the rainforest. They remained in the rainforest until the early part of the 16th century until the Spaniards arrived. Although they were far from the comforts of civilization, they were happy people, living their own life in the only way they knew. Their tribes were peaceful and harmonious. As proud and peaceful people, they do tend to be a bit suspicious of people from the outside but once their trust is gained, they are very genuine.

If you visit the village, be aware that both men and women walk around without much clothing so you know what to expect, as this is simply their way of living. The men are muscular with straight black hair and earrings. Some men do wear a g-string but not much else. The body is often heavily painted using dye from the genip tree. For red paint, achiote is used and for orange, seed pod.

More commonly known as the Lost Village, Ceren was a Classic Period village. Around 595 AD, the Loma Caldera volcano in north central El Salvador erupted with violence. The result was a mass of fiery ash and debris being spewed up to 16 feet deep and almost two miles long. The people living in Ceren, which was only one quarter of a mile from the center of the volcano, ran for their lives, leaving food on the dinner table as homes and fields were destroyed.

For over 1,400 years, this city lay forgotten, thus the name. However, in 1978, excavation was underway when a bulldozer accidentally opened the city, exposing everything perfectly preserved, as if people had simply walked away from the table. Experts are unable to determine the size of Ceren prior to the volcano eruption but through archaeological studies and excavations performed by the University of Colorado, we do know more about this civilization.

To date, excavations have shown that there was a civic building, sanctuary, four households, one sweat bath, and several agricultural fields. Interestingly, the very flash heat that preserved images at Herculaneum and Pompeii also left negative impressions of the agricultural crops. What these images show is that there were eight, 16-rows of corn, squash, manioc, beans, agave, and cotton. In addition, images also showed guava, cacao, and avocado orchids.

Many wonderful and interesting artifacts have been found to include wares used for cooking, storing food, and drinking chocolate. There has also been evidence uncovered relating to ceremonial and civic functions of the sweat bath, feast hall, and sanctuary. However, while all of these discovers are incredible, the people of Ceren are by far the most interesting. For instance, in one of the households, a number of things were discovered to include a cluster of four buildings, garden, and midden. Of these buildings, one was a home, two were made of daub and wattle construction, the roof was thatched, and the columns for supporting the roof at the four corners were adobe.

Inside one of the rooms, a raised bench was found along with two storage jars. In one of the jars, seeds were found and in the other jar, cotton fibers. Other finds included a spindle whorl, which suggested a spinning kit for thread. Another structure found in Ceren was a ramada with a roof but without walls. Then, a storehouse, which interestingly, was still full of storage jars, incensories, metates, hammer stones, and other tools that would have been used during that era, was still in tact. This storehouse still contained shelving, which was stocked with beans and other foods while chili peppers still hung from the rafters.

Although the people from Ceren, the lost village are long gone and the site has been abandoned for centuries, all of these findings have opened the door of opportunity, making this an excavators dream. Now being able to see this site with new technology has made Ceren one of the most incredible discoveries of our time.

Conquest and Colonization of Chile, 1535-1810

Ferdinand Magellan, Chile’s first known European discoverer stopped there during his voyage on October 21, 1520. A concerted attempt at colonization began when Diego de Almagro, a companion of conqueror Francisco Pizarro, headed south from Peru in 1535. Disappointed at the dearth of mineral wealth and deterred by the pugnacity of the native population in Chile, Almagro returned to Peru in 1537, where he died in the civil wars that took place among the conquistadors.

Pedro de Valdivia began the second Spanish expedition from Peru to Chile in 1540. Proving more persistent than Almagro, he founded the capital city of Santiago on February 12, 1541. Valdivia managed to subdue many northern Amerindians, forcing them to work in mines and fields. He had far less success with the Araucanians of the south, however.

Valdivia (1541-53) became the first governor of the captaincy general of Chile, which was the colonial name until 1609. In that post, he obeyed the viceroy of Peru and, through him, the king of Spain and his bureaucracy. Responsible to the governor, town councils known as cabildos administered local municipalities, the most important of which was Santiago, which was the seat of a royal audiencia (see Glossary) from 1609 until the end of colonial rule.

Seeking more precious metals and slave labor, Valdivia established fortresses farther south. Being so scattered and small, however, they proved difficult to defend against Araucanian attack. Although Valdivia found small amounts of gold in the south, he realized that Chile would have to be primarily an agricultural colony.

In December 1553, an Araucanian army of warriors, organized by the legendary Mapuche chief Lautaro (Valdivia’s former servant), assaulted and destroyed the fort of Tucapel. Accompanied by only fifty soldiers, Valdivia rushed to the aid of the fort, but all his men perished at the hands of the Mapuche in the Battle of Tucapel. Valdivia himself fled but was later tracked down, tortured, and killed by Lautaro. Although Lautaro was killed by Spaniards in the Battle of Mataquito in 1557, his chief, Caupolicán, continued the fight until his capture by treachery and his subsequent execution by the Spaniards in 1558. The uprising of 1553-58 became the most famous instance of Araucanian resistance; Lautaro in later centuries became a revered figure among Chilean nationalists. It took several more years to suppress the rebellion. Thereafter, the Araucanians no longer threatened to drive the Spanish out, but they did destroy small settlements from time to time. Most important, the Mapuche held on to their remaining territory for another three centuries.

Despite inefficiency and corruption in the political system, Chileans, like most Spanish Americans, exhibited remarkable loyalty to crown authority throughout nearly three centuries of colonial rule. Chileans complained about certain policies or officials but never challenged the regime. It was only when the king of Spain was overthrown at the beginning of the nineteenth century that Chileans began to consider self-government.

Chileans resented their reliance on Peru for governance, trade, and subsidies, but not enough to defy crown authority. Many Chilean criollos (creoles, or Spaniards born in the New World) also resented domination by the peninsulares (Spaniards, usually officials, born in the Old World and residing in an overseas colony), especially in the sinecures of royal administration. However, local Chilean elites, especially landowners, asserted themselves in politics well before any movement for independence. Over time, these elites captured numerous positions in the local governing apparatus, bought favors from the bureaucracy, co-opted administrators from Spain, and came to exercise informal authority in the countryside.

Society in Chile was sharply divided along ethnic, racial, and class lines. Peninsulares and criollos dominated the tiny upper class. Miscegenation between Europeans and the indigenous people produced a mestizo population that quickly outnumbered the Spaniards. Farther down the social ladder were a few African slaves and large numbers of Native Americans.

The Roman Catholic Church served as the main buttress of the government and the primary instrument of social control. Compared with its counterparts in Peru and Mexico, the church in Chile was not very rich or powerful. On the frontier, missionaries were more important than the Catholic hierarchy. Although usually it supported the status quo, the church produced the most important defenders of the indigenous population against Spanish atrocities. The most famous advocate of human rights for the native Americans was a Jesuit, Luis de Valdivia (no relation to Pedro de Valdivia), who struggled, mostly in vain, to improve their lot in the period 1593-1619.

Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Araucanians, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous colonies in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by Araucanians and by Spain’s European enemies, especially the British and the Dutch. In addition to the Araucanians, buccaneers and English adventurers menaced the colony, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake’s 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the principal port. Because Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, it was one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of Peru.

Throughout the colonial period, the Spaniards engaged in frontier combat with the Araucanians, who controlled the territory south of the Río Bío-Bío (about 500 kilometers south of Santiago) and waged guerrilla warfare against the invaders. During many of those years, the entire southern region was impenetrable by Europeans. In the skirmishes, the Spaniards took many of their defeated foes as slaves. Missionary expeditions to Christianize the Araucanians proved risky and often fruitless.

Most European relations with the Native Americans were hostile, resembling those later existing with nomadic tribes in the United States. The Spaniards generally treated the Mapuche as an enemy nation to be subjugated and even exterminated, in contrast to the way the Aztecs and the Incas treated the Mapuche, as a pool of subservient laborers. Nevertheless, the Spaniards did have some positive interaction with the Mapuche. Along with warfare, there also occurred some miscegenation, intermarriage, and acculturation between the colonists and the indigenous people.

Chile Wars of Independence, 1810-18

Aristocratic Chileans began considering independence only when the authority and legitimacy of the crown were cast in doubt by Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion of Spain in 1807. Napoleon replaced the Spanish king with his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. On the peninsula, Spanish loyalists formed juntas that claimed they would govern both the motherland and the colonies until the rightful king was restored. Thus, Chileans, like other Spanish Americans, had to confront the dilemma of who was in charge in the absence of the divine monarch: the French pretender to the throne, the Spanish rebels, or local leaders. The latter option was tried on September 18, 1810, a date whose anniversary is celebrated as Chile’s independence day. On that day, the criollo leaders of Santiago, employing the town council as a junta, announced their intention to govern the colony until the king was reinstated. They swore loyalty to the ousted monarch, Ferdinand VII, but insisted that they had as much right to rule in the meantime as did subjects of the crown in Spain itself. They immediately opened the ports to all traders.

Chile’s first experiment with self-government, the Old Fatherland (Patria Vieja, 1810-14), was led by José Miguel Carrera Verdugo (president, 1812-13), an aristocrat in his mid-twenties. The military-educated Carrera was a heavy-handed ruler who aroused widespread opposition. One of the earliest advocates of full independence, Bernardo O’Higgins Riquelme, captained a rival faction that plunged the criollos into civil war. For him and for certain other members of the Chilean elite, the initiative for temporary self-rule quickly escalated into a campaign for permanent independence, although other criollos remained loyal to Spain. Among those favoring independence, conservatives fought with liberals over the degree to which French revolutionary ideas would be incorporated into the movement. After several efforts, Spanish troops from Peru took advantage of the internecine strife to reconquer Chile in 1814, when they reasserted control by winning the Battle of Rancagua on October 12. O’Higgins and many of the Chilean rebels escaped to Argentina.

During the Reconquest (La Reconquista) of 1814-17, the harsh rule of the Spanish loyalists, who punished suspected rebels, drove more Chileans into the insurrectionary camp. More and more members of the Chilean elite were becoming convinced of the necessity of full independence, regardless of who sat on the throne of Spain. As the leader of guerrilla raids against the Spaniards, Manuel Rodríguez became a national symbol of resistance.

When criollos sang the praises of equality and freedom, however, they meant equal treatment for themselves in relation to the peninsulares and liberation from Spanish rule, not equality or freedom for the masses of Chileans. The criollos wanted to assume leadership positions previously controlled by peninsulares without upsetting the existing social and economic order. In that sense, the struggle for independence was a war within the upper class, although the majority of troops on both sides consisted of conscripted mestizos and native Americans.

In exile in Argentina, O’Higgins joined forces with José de San Martín, whose army freed Chile with a daring assault over the Andes in 1817, defeating the Spaniards at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12. San Martín considered the liberation of Chile a strategic stepping-stone to the emancipation of Peru, which he saw as the key to hemispheric victory over the Spanish. Chile won its formal independence when San Martín defeated the last large Spanish force on Chilean soil at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818. San Martín then led his Argentine and Chilean followers north to liberate Peru; and fighting continued in Chile’s southern provinces, the bastion of the royalists, until 1826.

Known as the “empty quarter” of the South Pacific, Paraguay is a country that few really know or understand. Distanced from the Latin American mainstream, this country was considered a country with very little to offer. The truth is that Paraguay boasts a number of national parks, a quaint riverside capital, and many wonderful Jesuit missions. The original inhabitants were semi-nomadic Guarani. In fact, historians estimate there were several groups of hunters and gatherers, which were called Guaycuru.

Then in 1524, the first European to cross to Paraguay with the help of aboriginal guides was a man named Alejo Garcia. Just three years later in 1527, Sebastian Cabot took a voyage up the Rio Paraguay but finding no settlements. Then another expedition led by Pedro de Mendoza settled in Asuncion having been forced to leave Buenos Aires. Soon, the colony began to grow and thrive, soon becoming a major Spanish settlement that sparked the intrigue of others interested in socialization.

The population of Native Indians grew, slowly absorbing the Spaniards. With this, the Guarani culture was also adopted to include the customs, languages, and food. As colonies were established, Jesuit missionaries came to help civilize the Indians, achieved with amazing skill. The Indians were encouraged to leave the land, settling instead in Reducciones, which were theocratic communes.

Once there, the Indians helped build churches, learned to paint, sculpt, and became excellent masons. For some, education was a part of the change. However, when the missionaires were forced out in 1767, the settlements began to fade away. Then by 1811, the country of Paraguay declared its independence, something Spain did not fight. For the people of Paraguay, this moment was one filled with pride and honor, something they had wanted for a long time.

However, just a few years later while under control of Jose Gaspar Rodriquez de Francia, known to many as “El Supremo”, the country’s borders were closed, which encouraged self-sufficiency. This action by Francia meant land and churches were confiscated, and merchants were brought under Francia’s control. Dying in 1840, Francia’s remains would be scattered into the river. His successor, Carlos Antonio Lopez ended to the country’s isolation, taking time and effort to modernize what Francia had tried so hard to destroy.

Unfortunately, while the country was freed, his son was set on destroying the country with the start of the War of the Triple Alliance against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. When the was ended, more than 58,000 square miles of the land and about 25% of the population were lost, which included the son that had started the war in the first place. Although horrific, Paraguay has fought hard to rebuild. Through various wars and leadership changes, we see a country today being stronger from an economical aspect.

Today, Paraguay offers a lot. For one thing, the country is very interested in visual arts, seen in both theater and galleries. However, the music is actually of European origin, although it has slight touches of Argentinean, Brazilian, and Black. Two of the most popular instruments include the guitar, and interestingly, the harp. Dance is also an important part of the culture to include the bottle and polka dance.

For the food of Paraguay, we see a wide range of sub-tropical and tropical dishes. For starters, Manioc flour is something seen in just about every meal. Some local favorites include Sooyo Sopy, a thick soup made from ground meat, which is then served over noodles or rice, Locro, maize stew, or Mazamorra, corn mush. However, the desserts are delicious and simple, such as Mbaipy, which is truly delicious and made from corn, milk, and molasses.

Nomadic hunters and gatherers were the first people of Peru. They lived along the coastal regions in caves and in fact, one of the oldest caves called Pikimachay can be dated back to 12,000 BC. Then sometime around 4,000 BC, the nomadic people began planning crops to include squash, beans, chili peppers, and cotton. As time progressed, they learned more skills to include agriculture, weaving, and even religion.

Then the Chavin disappeared around 300 BC but over the following centuries, other people came and went to include the Nazca, Paracas, Necropolis, Salinar, and Wari. In the early 15th century, the majority of Peru was controlled by the Inca Empire, with its influence stretching past Peru into Chile and Colombia. Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador started to explore all of the coastal regions of Peru between 1526 and 1528 where he discovered the many riches of the Empire.

From there, Pizarro went back to Spain where he gathered men and headed up an expedition taking them back to Peru. He entered the northern part of the country in a city called Cajamarca. Soon after in 1533, Pizarro captured the Inca Emperor, Atahualpa. Lima, Peru remained a very peaceful place for the next 200 years, becoming a hub for commercial, social, and political activities.

Located in the western portion of South America, Peru has several borders, Bolivia to the southwest, Chile to the south, Colombia to the north, Brazil to the northeast, and Ecuador to the northwest. The fascinating thing about Peru is that it has three very distinct regions, which include the Andean mountain range, the Amazon basin, and a narrow, coastal belt.

The Andes are comprised of two primary ranges - Oriental and Cordillera Occidental. However, reaching a staggering 22,000 feet about sea level is the largest mountain in Peru, the Huascarian. As you travel through Lima, you will immediately be impressed with the abundance of life. For instance, there are sea lions, pelicans, terns, flamingos, penguins, llama, bears, jaguars, hummingbirds, condors, alpaca, and the list goes on. To complement the wildlife is the beauty of Lima in the form of flora. In addition to hardy plants growing in the woodlands, there are national parks filled with flowers, trees, and lush greenery.

When visiting Lima, Peru, you will have your choice of two seasons. The first is the wet season and the second is the dry season. Typically, the western Andean slopes and coast are dry. The summer months for these regions start in December and run through April. The remainder of the year, the people of Lima experience what is called Garua, or coastal fog, which literally blocks out the sun, which is seldom seen. Then in the Andes, the dry season runs from May to September, again with the wet season spanning out over the remainder of the year. Then if you go to the eastern slopes, you would find dry months similar to those in the highlands and the wet season starting in January, running to April.

Although there are so many things that draw people to Lima, the natural beauty is at the top of the list. People notice that unlike other cities in Peru and South America, Lima seems to be more laid back, calmer environment where people do not stress. In fact, rather than feel like a larger metropolitan, Lima has the feel of a cluster of smaller towns. Some of the finest entertainment is at the Penas, which are bars where the famous folk and Creole music can be heard. If you prefer, you can visit any number of open marketplaces and of course, dine at some of the most amazing restaurants.

Other opportunities include some great museums where you can enjoy a glance into the past life of the Peruvian people. Then if you head to the south portion of Lima, you will discover some gorgeous white beaches and beautiful, cool waters. Although there are few amenities on these beaches, you will find a few cafes. If you love solitude, then the El Silencio beach is the place to visit. Lima, Peru is a living art gallery consisting of stone craft, textiles, metalwork, and fine pottery.

This city has a unique blend of Spanish colonization coupled with strong native Indian influences. There are beautiful paintings that mimic European style, amazing architecture, and the distinctive Cuzco style. Additionally, the people of Peru enjoy the popular Peruvian music, which is almost all, folk type music, and varied literature. The food in Lima is absolutely, delicious but the spices and flavors vary depending on the region. One of the best is the seafood, which comes fresh from the coast. Other foods that Westerners have a difficult time with is roasted guinea pig but in Peru, it is a coveted delicacy.

Other common foods found in Lima include chopped steak fried with onions, known as Lomo Saltado, White Sea bass that has been marinated in lemon, chili, and onions, called Cebiche de Corvina, and a unique spiced noodle soup made with egg, vegetables, and milk, known as Sopa a la Criolla. The flavors are rich, interesting, and very satisfying. When visiting, consider going during festival times. For instance, in the months of February and March, there is the Carnaval, in June Inti Raymi, an outstanding Inca festival, July the celebration of Peru’s Independence, and then in November, Puno Day, a festival featuring flamboyant costumes and street music and dancing.

The Pampas (from Quechua, meaning “plain”) are the fertile South American lowlands that include the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, and Córdoba, most of Uruguay, and the southernmost end of Brazil, covering more than 750,000 km² (290,000 square miles). These vast plains are only interrupted by the low Ventania mountain range near Bahía Blanca (Argentina), with 1,300 m height. The climate is mild, with precipitation of 600 to 1,200 mm, more or less evenly distributed through the year, making the soils appropriate for agriculture.

Frequent fires ensure that only small plants such as grasses flourish and trees are exceptional. The dominant vegetation types are grassy prairie and grass steppe in which numerous species of the grass genus Stipa are particularly conspicuous. ‘Pampas Grass’ (Cortaderia selloana) is an iconic species of the Pampas. Vegetation typically includes perennial grasses and herbs. Different strata of grasses occur due to gradients of water availability. The Pampas are home to a wide variety of native species, although there is an almost absolute lack of native trees, except along main watercourses.

Its climate, as in the mid-latitudes, is naturally changeable. Winters are cool to mild and summers are very warm and humid. Rainfall is fairly uniform throughout the year but is a little heavier during the summer. Annual rainfall is heaviest near the coast and decreases gradually further inland. Rain during the late spring and summer usually arrives in the form of brief heavy showers and thunderstorms. More general rainfall occurs the remainder of the year as cold fronts and storm systems move through. Although cold spells during the winter often send nighttime temperatures below freezing, snow is quite rare. In most winters, a few light snowfalls occur over inland areas. Snow is extremely rare near the coast.

Central Argentina boasts a successful agricultural business, with crops grown on the Pampas south and west of the Buenos Aires. In particular, the harvested area of soybeans is on pace to set a record, according to the Food and Agricultural Service. Much of the area is also used for grazing cattle. These farming regions (i.e., modified of disturbed Pampas) are particularly susceptible to flooding during heavy rainfall. In October 2001 an estimated 3.5 million hectares (35,000 km²) of the pampas were flooded, with thousands of hectares of fields and grazing lands being submerged. Buenos Aires reported nearly 250 mm (9.84 in) of rainfall during that month, which is more than double the normal amount.

The Strait of Magellan is a navigable route immediately south of mainland South America. The strait is arguably the most important natural passage between the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans, but it is considered a difficult route to navigate because of the inhospitable climate and the narrowness of the passage.

Until the Panama Canal was finished in 1914, the Strait of Magellan was often the only safe way to move between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Protected by the Tierra del Fuego to the south and the bulk of South America to the north, ships crossed with relative ease, removed from the dangers of Drake Passage. The Drake Passage is the relatively narrow stretch of ocean separating Cape Horn (the southern tip of South America) from Antarctica, the waters of which are notoriously turbulent, unpredictable, and frequented by icebergs and sea ice. Until the Panama Canal was finished, the strait was the second-most used route for ships crossing between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans (the Drake Passage was the most used route).

Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to navigate the strait in 1520, during his global circumnavigation voyage. Because Magellan’s ships entered it on November 1, it was originally named Estreito de Todos los Santos (Strait of All Saints).

On May 23, 1843 Chile took possession of the channel, under whose sovereignty it remains as of 2005. On the coast of the Strait lies the city of Punta Arenas and the village of Porvenir.

Early explorers, including Ferdinand Magellan, Francis Drake, Charles Darwin, among others, crossed this path. Prospectors during the 1849 California gold rush used this route as well.

Located in South America, the Andes Mountain stretches from the north to the south, going along the western coast some 4,500 miles, making this one of the longest and highest mountain ranges in the entire world. When visiting South America, this area is one that you certainly should see. Keep in mind that because some places in the Andes are closer to the equator than other places, the climate is not the same.

This particular mountain range is divided into three specific and natural regions. First, there is the south, second the central region, and third, the northern region. In the southern region, you will find that the temperatures are quite a bit colder due to the mountains being closer to the Antarctic. However, if you were to visit the northern region, you would notice temperatures being hot because the mountain range is closer to the equator.

Because of high humidity levels in the northern ranges, the Andes Mountains has beautiful rainforests. To keep everything so magnificent and green, this region also gets a lot of rain. Typically, when people visit the Andes Mountains, they will head to the northern region because it is far more beautiful, there is more to see, and the temperatures are more pleasant whereas in the southern region, you see few people.

Now, if you head to the central region of the Andes Mountains, the weather tends to be more on the mild side since it is a neutral location. This too is a beautiful part of the mountain range to visit. Interestingly, the Puya Raimondii, which is the largest herb on the planet, grows in the central region, surviving and flourishing at elevations of 13,000 feet above sea level. In fact, this particular herb has been growing in this are for the past century. With this, the leaves grow out from one stem, which means the moisture can run from the leaves to the plant’s base so during drought, the plant easily survives.

You will find that a large number of the plants growing in the Andes stay small, which is their natural process for conserving needed energy. Therefore, you will often find plants that are stiff but strong so they can handle cold weather and frost. In addition to plants, the Andes Mountains are also home to many different species of birds. For example, you will find the Condor, Flamingo, Hillstar Hummingbird, and Andean Flicker. Then, there is magnificent wildlife such as the Red Perll, Llamas, the Mountain Lion, the Speckled Bear, Andean Iguana, and the Giant Toad.

Unfortunately, with too much logging, some areas of the Andes Mountains have experienced terrible destruction. With that, the animals have lost shelter and food. Then when you add in the fact that more and more people are now mining for gold, silver, and copper, the soil in some areas has become eroded, this time damaging plants. Even with these challenges, the Andes Mountains are spectacular.

Now, while many areas of the Andes Mountains are perfectly safe for traveling, some areas of South America are considered dangerous due to drug problems and guerilla activity. However, if you work with a reputable and skilled guide, and follow information provided by your travel agent, you will do find. Once there, you will be amazed at how beautiful this area of the world is, simply a slice of heaven waiting to be explored.

Patagonia is that portion of South America which, to the east of the Andes, lies mainly south of the Rio Negro (41°S), and, to the west of the Andes, south of (42°S). The Chilean portion embraces the southern part of the region of Los Lagos, and the regions of Aysen and Magallanes (excluding the portion of Antarctica claimed by Chile). East of the Andes the Argentine portion of Patagonia is divided into four provinces:

A lake in Neuquén, Argentine portion of PatagoniaNeuquén, covering 36,324 sq. miles, including the triangle between the rivers Limay and Neuquen, and extending southward to the northern shore of Lake Nahuel-Huapi (41°S) and northward to the Rio Colorado;

Río Negro, covering 78,383 sq. miles, extending from the Atlantic to the Cordillera of the Andes, to the north of 42°S; Chubut, covering 86,751 sq. miles, embracing the region between 42° and 46°S; and Santa Cruz, which stretches from the last-named parallel as far south as the dividing line with Chile, and between Point Dungeness and the watershed of the Cordillera: an area of 94,186 sq. miles.

The general character of the Argentine portion of Patagonia is for the most part a region of vast steppe-like plains, rising in a succession of abrupt terraces about 100 meters (330 feet) at a time, and covered with an enormous bed of shingle almost bare of vegetation. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of brackish and fresh water. Towards the Andes the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant, acquiring the characteristics of the flora of the western coast, and consisting principally of southern beech and conifers.

Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the principal are the Gualichu, south of the Rio Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta (through which previously flowed the waters of lake Nahuel Huapi, which now feed the river Limay); the Senguerr, the Deseado. Besides these transverse depressions (some of them marking lines of ancient inter-oceanic communication), there are others which were occupied by more or less extensive lakes, such as the Yagagtoo, Musters, and Colhue Huapi, and others situated to the south of Puerto Deseado, in the centre of the country. In the central region volcanic eruptions, which have taken part in the formation of the plateau from the Tertiary period down to the present era, cover a large part with basaltic lava-caps; and in the western third more recent glacial deposits appear above the lava. There, in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks, uplifted by the Tertiary granite, erosion, caused principally by the sudden melting and retreat of the ice, aided by tectonic changes, has scooped out a deep longitudinal depression, which generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, while on the west of these there is a similar longitudinal depression all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia.

The geological constitution is in accordance with the orographic physiognomy. The Tertiary plateau, flat on the east, gradually rising on the west, shows Upper Cretaceous caps at its base. First come Lower Cretaceous hills, raised by granite and dioritic rocks, undoubtedly of Tertiary origin, as in some cases these rocks have broken across the Tertiary beds, so rich in mammal remains; then follow, on the west, metamorphic schists of uncertain age; then quartzites appear, resting directly on the primitive granite and gneiss which form the axis of the Cordillela. Porphyritic rocks occur between the schists and the quartzites. The Tertiary deposits are greatly varied in character, and there is considerable difference of opinion concerning the succession and correlation of the beds.

Glaciers occupy the valleys of the main chain and some of the lateral ridges of the Cordillera, and descend to lakes San Martín, Viedma, Argentino and others in the same locality, strewing them with icebergs. In Patagonia an immense ice-sheet extended to the east of the present Atlantic coast during the first ice age, at the close of the Tertiary epoch, while, during the second glacial age in modern times, the terminal moraines have generally stopped, 30 miles (50 km) in the north and 50 miles (80 km) in the south, east of the summit of the Cordillera. These ice-sheets, which scooped out the greater part of the longitudinal depressions, and appear to have rapidly retreated to the point where the glaciers now exist, did not, however, in their retirement fill up with their detritus the fjords of the Cordillera, for these are now occupied by deep lakes on the east, and on the west by the Pacific channels, some of which are as much as 250 fathoms (460 m) in depth, and soundings taken in them show that the fjords are as usual deeper in the vicinity of the mountains than to the west of the islands. Several of the high peaks are still active volcanoes.

In so far as its main characteristics are concerned, Patagonia seems to be a portion of the Antarctic continent, the permanence of which dates from very recent times, as is evidenced by the apparent recent emergence of the islets around Chiloé, and by the general character of the pampean formation. Some of the promontories of Chiloé are still called huapi, the Araucanian equivalent for “islands”; and this may perhaps be accepted as perpetuating the recollection of the time when they actually were islands. They are composed of caps of shingle, with great, more or less rounded boulders, sand and volcanic ashes, precisely of the same form as occurs on the Patagonian plateau. From an examination of the pampean formation it is evident that in recent times the land of the province of Buenos Aires extended farther to the east, and that the advance of the sea, and the salt-water deposits left by it when it retired, forming some of the lowlands which occur on the littoral and in the interior of the pampas, are much more recent phenomena; and certain caps of shingle, derived from rocks of a different class from those of the neighbouring hills, which are observed on the Atlantic coasts of the same province, and increase in quantity and size towards the south, seem to indicate that the caps of shingle which now cover such a great part of the Patagonian territory recently extended farther to the east, over land which has now disappeared beneath the sea, while other marine deposits along the same coasts became converted into bays during the subsequent advance of the sea. There are besides, in the neighbourhood of the present coast, deposits of volcanic ashes, and the ocean throws up on its shores blocks of basaltic lava, which in all probability proceed from eruptions of submerged volcanoes now extinct. One fact, however, which apparently demonstrates with greater certainty the existence in recent times of land that is now lost, is the presence of remains of pampean mammals in Pleistocene deposits in the bay of San Julian and in Santa Cruz. The animals undoubtedly reached these localities from the east; it is not at all probable that they advanced from the north southwards across the plateau intersected at that cime by great rivers and covered by the ice-sheet. With the exception of the discoveries at the inlet of Ultima Esperanza, which is in close communication with the Atlantic valley of Río Gallegos, none of these remains have been discovered in the Andean regions.

On the upper plains of Neuquen territory thousands of cattle can be fed, and the forests around Lakes Tiaful and Nahuel-Huapi yield large quantities of valuable timber. The Neuquen river is not navigable, but as its waters are capable of being easily dammed in places, large stretches of land in its valley are utilized; but the lands on each side of its lower part are of little commercial value. As the Cordillera is approached the soil becomes more fertile, and suitable districts for the rearing of cattle and other agricultural purposes exist between the regions that surround the Tromen volcano and the first ridges of the Andes. Chos Malal, the capital of the territory, is situated in one of these valleys. More to the west is the mining region, in great part unexplored, but containing deposits of gold, silver, copper and lignite. In the centre of the territory, also in the neighbourhood of the mining districts, are the valleys of Norquin and Las Lajas, the general camp of the Argentine army in Patagonia, with excellent timber in the forest on the Andean slope. The wide valleys occur near Rio Malleo, Lake Huechulafquen, the river Chimehuin, and Vega de Chapelco, near Lake Lacar, where are situated villages of some importance, such as Junin de los Andes and San Martin de los Andes. Close to these are the famous apple orchards supposed to have been planted by the Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries. The river Collon Cura, the principal affluent of the river Limay, drains these regions. Lake Lacar is now a contributary of the Pacific, its outlet having been changed to the west, owing to a passage having been opened through the Cordillera.

The Rio Negro runs along a wide transverse depression. the middle part of which is followed by the railway which runs to the settlement of Neuquen at the confluence of the rivers Limay and Neuquen. In this depression are several settlements, among them Viedma, the capital of the Rio Negro territory, Pringles, General Conesa, Choele Choel and General Roca. To the south of the Rio Negro the Patagonian plateau is intersected by the depressions of the Gualicho and Maquinchao, which in former times directed the waters of two great rivers (now disappeared) to the gulf of San Matias, the first-named depression draining the network of the Collon Cura and the second the Nahuel Huapi lake system. In 42°S there is a third broad transverse depression, apparently the bed of another great river, now perished, which carried to the Atlantic the waters of a portion of the eastern slope of the Andes, between 41° and 42°30;S.

Chubut territory presents the same characteristics as the Rio Negro territory. Rawson, the capital, is situated at the mouth of the river Chubut on the Atlantic (42°30′S). The town was founded in 1865 by a group of colonists from Wales, assisted by the Argentine government; and its prosperity has led to the foundation of other important centres in the valley, such as Trelew and Gaiman, which is connected by railway with Puerto Madryn on Bahia Nueva. Here is the seat of the governor of the territory, and by 1895 the inhabitants of this part of the territory, composed principally of Argentines, Welsh and Italians, numbered 2585. The valley has been irrigated and cultivated, and produces the best wheat of the Argentine Republic. Between the Chubut and the Senguerr there are vast stretches of fertile land, spreading over the Andean region to the foot of the Cordillera and the lateral ridges of the Pre-Cordillera, and filling the basins of some desiccated lakes, which have been occupied since 1885, and farms and colonies founded upon them. The chief of these colonies is that of 16 de Octubre, formed in 1886, mainly by the inhabitants of Chubut colony, in the longitudinal valley which extends to the eastern foot of the Cordillera. Other rivers in this territory flow into the Pacific through breaches in the Cordillera, e.g. the upper affluents of the Futaleufu, Palena and Rio Cisnes. The principal affluent of the Palena, the Carrenleufu, carries off the waters of Lake General Paz, situated on the eastern slope of the Cordillera. Rio Pico, an affluent of the same river, receives nearly the whole of the waters of the extensive undulating plain which lies between the Rio Tecka and the Rio Senguerr to the east of the Cordillera, while the remainder are carried away by the affluents of Rio Jehua: the Cherque, Omkel, and Appeleg. This region contains auriferous drifts, but these, like the auriferous deposits, veins of galena and lignite in the mountains farther west which flank the Cordillera, have not been properly investigated. At Lake Fontana there are auriferous drifts and lignite deposits which abound in fossil plants of the Cretaceous age. The streams which form the rivers Mayo and Chalia join the tributaries of the Rio Aisen, which flows into the Pacific, watering in its course extensive and valuable districts where colonization has been initiated by Argentine settlers. Colonies have also been formed in the basin of Lakes Musters and Colhué Huapi; and on the coasts near the Atlantic, along Bahia Camarones and the Gulf of San Jorge, there are extensive farms.

The territory of Santa Cruz is arid along the Atlantic coast and in the central portion between 46° and 50°S. With the exception of certain valleys at Puerto Deseado (Port Desired) and in the transverse basins which occur as far south as Puerto San Julian, and which contain several cattle farms, few spots are capable of cultivation, the pastures being poor, water insufficient and salt lagunas fairly numerous. Puerto Deseado is the outlet for the produce of the Andean region situated between Lakes Buenos Aires and Pueyrredon.

Into this inlet there flowed at the time of the conquest a voluminous river, which subsequently disappeared, but returned again to its ancient bed, owing to the river Fenix, one of its affluents, which had deviated to the west, regaining its original direction. Lake Buenos Aires, the largest lake in Patagonia, measuring 120 kilometers (75 miles) in length, poured its waters into the Atlantic even in post-Glacial times by means of the river Deseado; and it is so depicted on the maps of the 17th and 18th centuries; and so too did Lake Pueyrredon, which, through the action of erosion, now empties itself westward, through the river Las Heras, into the Calen inlet of the Pacific, in 48°S.

San Julian on Puerto San Julian, where Ferdinand Magellan wintered, was the centre of a cattle farming colony, and colonists have pushed into the interior up the valley of a now extinct river which in comparatively recent times carried down to Puerto San Julian the waters of Lakes Volcan, Beigrano, Azara, Nansen, and some other lakes which now drain into the river Mayer and so into Lake San Martin. The valleys of the Rio Chico throughout their whole extent, as well as those of Lake Shehuen, afford excellent grazing, and around Lakes Belgrano, Burmeister and Rio Mayer and San Martin there are spots suitable for cultivation. In the Cretaceous hills which flank the Cordillera important lignite beds and deposits of mineral oils have been discovered. The Rio Santa Cruz, originally explored by Captain Fitzroy and Charles Darwin, is an important artery of communication between the regions bordering upon the Cordillera and the Atlantic. In Santa Cruz bay an important trade centre has been established. But the present cattle region par excellence of Patagonia is the department of Rio Gallegos, the farms extending from the Atlantic to the Cordillera. Puerto Gallegos itself is an important business center, which bids fair to rival the Chilean colony of Punta Arenas, on the Straits of Magellan. Owing to the produce of the cattle farms established there, the working of coal in the neighborhood, and the export of timber from the surrounding forests, the town of Punta Arenas is in a flourishing condition. Its population in 1911 numbered about 4000. But the colonization of the western (Chilean) coast has generally failed, principally owing to the adverse climatic conditions of the Cordillera in those latitudes.

Climate

The climate is less severe than was supposed by early travelers. The east slope is warmer than the west, especially in summer, as a branch of the southern equatorial current reaches its shores, whereas a cold current washes the west coast. At Puerto Montt, on the inlet behind Chiloé Island. the mean annual temperature is 11 °C (52°F) and the average extremes 25.5 °C (78°F) and -1.5 °C (29.5°F), whereas at Bahia Blanca near the Atlantic coast and just outside the northern confines of Patagooia the annual temperature is 15C (59°F) and the range much greater. At Punta Arenas, in the extreme south, the mean temperature is 6 °C (43°F) and the average extremes 24.5 °C (76°F) and -2 °C (28°F). The prevailing winds are westerly, and the westward slope has a much heavier precipitation than the eastern; thus at Puerto Montt the mean annual precipitation is 2.46 m (97 inches), but at Bahia Blanca it is 480 mm (19 inches). At Punta Arenas it is 560 mm (22 inches).

Fauna

The guanaco, the puma, the zorro or Brazilian fox (Canis azarae), the zorrino or Mephitis patagonica (a kind of skunk), and the tuco-tuco or Ctenomys niagellanicus (a rodent) are the most characteristic mammals of the Patagonian plains. The guanaco roam in herds over the country and form with the rhea (Rhea americana, and more rarely Rhea darwinii) the chief means of subsistence for the natives, who hunt them on horseback with dogs and bolas. Bird-life is often wonderfully abundant. The carancho or carrion-hawk (Polyborus tharus) is one of the characteristic objects of a Patagonian landscape; the presence of long-tailed green parakeets (Conurus cyanolysius) as far south as the shores of the strait attracted the attention of the earlier navigators; and hummingbirds may be seen flying amidst the falling snow. Of the many kinds of water-fowl it is enough to mention the flamingo, the upland goose, and in the strait the remarkable steamer duck.

History

Patagonia was discovered in 1520 by Ferdinand Magellan, who on his passage along the coast named many of the more striking features — Gulf of San Matias, Cape of 11,000 Virgins (now simply Cape Virgenes). Patagonia means ‘land of the big feet’. Legends say that Magellan and his crew saw a tribe of nine-foot tall giants with big feet. He named the tribe the Patagons or big feet. Later explorers confirmed the existence of and made drawings of the Patagons. Cortés also claimed to see a tribe of giants of the same height in the Andes.

By 1611 the Patagonian god Setebos (Settaboth in Pigafetta) was familiar to the hearers of the Tempest. Rodrigo de Isla, despatched inland in 1535 from San Matias by Alcazava Sotomayor (on whom western Patagonia had been conferred by the king of Spain), was the first to traverse the great Patagonian plain, and, but for the mutiny of his men, he would have struck across the Andes to the Chilean side. Pedro de Mendoza, on whom the country was next bestowed, lived to found Buenos Aires, but not to carry his explorations to the south. Alonzo de Camargo (1539), Juan Ladrilleros (1557) and Hurtado de Mendoza (1558) helped to make known the western coasts, and Sir Francis Drake’s voyage in 1577 down the eastern coast through the strait and northward by Chile and Peru was memorable for several reasons; but the geography of Patagonia owes more to Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa (1579-1580), who, devoting himself especially to the south-west region, made careful and accurate surveys. The Spanish government neglected the settlement that he founded at Nombre de Dios and San Felipe, and the latter was in such a miserable state when Thomas Cavendish visited it in 1587 that he called it Port Famine. The district in the neighborhood of Puerto Deseado, explored by John Davis about the same period, was taken possession of by Sir John Narborough in the name of King Charles II of England in 1669. In the second half of the 18th century knowledge of Patagonia was augmented by Byron (1764-1765), Samuel Wallis (1766) and L.A. de Bougainville (1766); Thomas Falkner, a Jesuit who resided near forty years in those parts, published his Description of Patagonia (Hereford, 1774); Francesco Viedma founded El Carmen, and Antonio advanced inland to the Andes (1782); and Basilio Villarino ascended the Rio Negro (1782). The Adventure and Beagle expeditions under Philip King (1826-1830) and Robert Fitzroy (1832-1836) were of first-rate importance, the latter especially from the participation of Charles Darwin; but of the interior of the country nothing was observed except 200 miles (320 km) of the course of the Santa Cruz. Captain George Chaworth Musters in 1869 wandered in company with a band of Tehuelches through the whole length of the country from the strait to the Manzaneros in the north-west, and collected a great deal of information about the people and their mode of life.

The history of Latin America is a rich one. This country has long been known for their festive dancing, colorful clothes, delicious food, and warm-hearted people. However, one interesting question has surfaced time and time again - “Did Latin Americans actually speak Latin?”

Interestingly, Latin was one of the many different Italic languages spoken in central Italy during the 5th century. The area known as Latium or Lazio and then again in Rome were specifically fluent in Latin. Historians tell us that there were early inscriptions discovered in Latin that date back to the 6th century. These inscriptions were written in a various forms of the Greek alphabet and then brought over to Italy by the colonist from Greece.

Then, Rome expanded its influence and power over some parts of Italy and then into various areas of Europe. Over time, the Roman Empire became massive, stretching across a large region of North Africa, Europe, and even the Middle East. Throughout the Roman Empire, Latin was a common language used on an every day basis. In fact, the Roman people were very literate, which is why we see many great Latin authors from Rome.

In addition, the Greeks remained the lingua franca in eastern Mediterranean and the Romans, who were highly educated, became very fluent in both languages. The earliest surviving examples of Latin literature were in fact the translations from Greek plays, along with a farming manual that is estimated back to around 150 BC.

From there, we know that Latin was commonly used in early Latin literature, classical Latin, and various means from colloquial Latin, which was called Vulgar Latin. However, there were some writers that included Petronius and Cicero that often spoke Vulgar Latin during work. What we have seen is the Latin language changing over the centuries with it moving away from the standards of literacy into modern Romance/Italic languages, which would include French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, Spanish, and so on.

When the Roman Empire collapsed in AD 476, the Latin language continued being used for literacy throughout central and Western Europe. Then, Medieval Latin literature became popular in many different styles that included scholarly work of Anglo-Saxon and Irish writers to people giving sermons. Then in the 15th century, Latin started to lose its position as the standard language spoken and written throughout most of Europe, being replaced by versions of vernacular languages, which were actually descendants of Latin or with its influence.

The Latin language of modern society was used significantly in the Roman Catholic Church. However, by the 20th century, we see a decline in the use of Latin, although there are some areas that still use it extensively to include Vatican City. Another area where we commonly see Latin used is by biologists and various scientists. Interesting, for the Romans to write Latin there were 23 letters used, similar to the English alphabet but minus the letters J, U, and W.

When it comes to rich legacies left behind by pre-Hispanic cultures, Peru lands at the top of the list. At the hub of Peru is a city called Cuzco, which is the ancient capital of the Inca Empire. Cuzco, Peru is known as the archaeological capital of all South America, which is a complex culture that comes from the Inca and Spanish. In Cuzco, you can see this amazing blend by the Spanish colonial architecture and the famous Inca ruins.

Starting in the 14th century, Cuzco was the capital of the Incan Empire. However, in 1533, Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish leader came and conquered Peru, following a very difficult voyage that took him and his entourage through Panama and then over the Andes mountains. Once the Spanish arrived, they found massive riches to include gold. This incredible find pushed Peru into a new era that would make history.

One of the most fascinating aspects of the Incan capital is the architecture. There, you will discover massive cut-stone blocks that fit perfectly but without modern day mortar. One of the buildings is the temple of the sun called Coricancha, along with a fortress known as Sacsahuaman, both built with boulders weighing more than 190 tons. Now, consider that during this era, the people had no backhoes, no cranes, and no modern equipment to lift such enormous weight; we can only imagine the amazing challenge to complete the structures, and then the celebration once completed.

Keep in mind that the city of Cuzco was established in the form of a puma, using the fortress as the head and the Tullumayo and Huatanay Rivers as the tail. In addition, ancient Cuzco was located in the exact place as the modern city square, although twice as large. Then all around the palaces of the past kings was gravel, which was the site of important ceremonies. There are four roads going to the four corners, which were eventually paved. With so much attention to detail and the unbelievable engineering that went into building this city, it was breathtakingly beautiful.

You will discover that the city of Cuzco is also spelled in a number of ways to include Cusco, Qozqo, and Qosqo. However, no matter the name or the spelling, this ancient, Incan Empire capital today stands as a blend of modern buildings and amenities with colonial additions. Interestingly, the spelling “Qosqo” translates to “bellybutton” or “navel” in Quechua, which is a beautiful valley that supported civilization prior to the Incas. As visitors came to the city, they would hear chants of “Ama Sua, Ama Quella, Amam Lulla, which means, “Don’t lie, don’t steal, and don’t be lazy”.

When visiting Cuzco, Peru, you will be amazed and impressed at the artistry and techniques used to create this empire. Most of the structures have outlived earthquakes, living on for future generations to enjoy. The plaza was the core of the Suvos, or Four Regions of the Inca Empire, which stretches from Quito, Ecuador all the way to northern Chile. There in the plaza stood ceremonial and official buildings along with residences of the rulers. From this vantage point, fast runners could take messages from the center of the city out in all directions to form a network of communication.

All around Cuzco are varied populations to include artisan, agricultural, and industrial. Sadly, the Spanish destroyed a good number of the structures and what couldn’t be demolished was used to build churches and other buildings, many that still exist today. Getting to Cuzco, Peru is actually easy. Once there, you will find the climate to be very comfortable but keep in mind the rainy season is from November to March.

In addition to the ruins, the streets of the city are quaint, dotted with colonial red roofs, blue doors, and whitewashed walls. The people are hard working and warm, and very interested in outside visitors. In the city, there are great places to visit such as the San Blas church, the Cathedral, and the Art School. Other attractions worth seeing while in Cuzco, Peru include Qorikancha, the Sun Temple, which is best viewed at night when it is fully illuminated and the La Compania Church, a true masterpiece.

You might also plan a trip to Q’engo, a temple dedicated to Mother Earth, Puca Pukara, a fortress watchtower that has an amazing view, Lago, Lanlakuyoq, and Kusilluchayoq, believe to be sites used for ceremonies or observations, and the incredible Machu Picchu, one of the most magical places on earth. You can also visit the Sunday market called Chinceros located in the center of town, the Urubamba River Valley, which winds from Pisac to Ollantaytamob, the salt flats called Maras, or you might simply enjoy hiking or rafting down the Vilcamayu River.