Mexican Wars of Independence, 1810-21 Part Two

warfare, ensuring their grudging acquiescence to conservative Spanish rule until a less bloody path to independence could be found. It was at this juncture that the machinations of a conservative military caudillo coinciding with a successful liberal rebellion in Spain, made possible a radical realignment of the pro-independence forces.

Iturbide and the Plan of Iguala

In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo officer, Augustín de Iturbide, to defeat Guerrero’s army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid, had gained renown for the zeal with which he persecuted Hidalgo’s and Morelos’s rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide was the personification of conservative criollo values, devoutly religious, and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges; he was also disgruntled at his lack of promotion and wealth.

Iturbide’s assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the new monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, who had been assembled as an expeditionary force to suppress the American independence movements, compelled a reluctant Ferdinand to sign the liberal Spanish constitution of 1812. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide saw in it both a threat to the status quo and an opportunity for the criollos to gain control of Mexico. Ironically, independence was finally achieved when conservative forces in the colonies chose to rise up against a temporarily liberal regime in the mother country. After an initial clash with Guerrero’s forces, Iturbide switched allegiances and invited the rebel leader to meet and discuss principles of a renewed independence struggle.

While stationed in the town of Iguala, Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or “guarantees,” for Mexican independence from Spain: Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by a transplanted King Ferdinand or some other conservative European prince, criollos and peninsulares would henceforth enjoy equal rights and privileges, and the Roman Catholic Church would retain its privileges and religious monopoly. After convincing his troops to accept the principles, which were promulgated on February 24, 1821, as the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of the new conservative manifestation of the independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was then placed under Iturbide’s command to enforce the Plan of Iguala. The plan was so broadly based that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions.

Rebel forces from all over Mexico joined Iturbide’s army. When the rebels’ victory became certain, the viceroy resigned. On September 27, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized Mexican independence under the terms of the Plan of Iguala. Iturbide, a former royalist who had become the paladin for Mexican independence, included a special clause in the treaty that left open the possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican crown.

Guatemala has a long history of being a thriving fishing and farming community that can be dated back to 2000 BC, even before the Maya civilization dominated Central America. During the Early Classic period around AD 250, many magnificent temple cities were constructed in the Guatemalan highlands. However, by the Late Classic period, from AD 600 to 900, the primary power had moved to the lowlands of El Peten. However, after the mysterious demise of the Mayans, the Itzaes settled in El Peten.

Interestingly, many of the Mayan ruins were discovered when Pedro de Alvarado came to this country for the King of Spain in 1523. However, the kingdoms remaining in the highlands were crushed by Alvarado’s armies, lands turned into large estates, and the people exploited by the new property owners. Then friars of Dominican, Augustinian, and Franciscan arrived but they were unable to stop the exploitation. Sadly, the religious imperialism they brought with them was the cause of many valuable traces of the Mayan culture to be demolished. Click here to read more.

Costa Rica is a place with pristine beaches, blue water, warm, sunny days, abundant fish life, and welcoming people. Interestingly, many people are not aware that Costa Rica is also home to 200 plus volcanic formations, dating back 65 million years! Of these, seven are active, which is related to the fertile soil.

Over the years, eruptions from these seven volcanoes have left massive destruction. Irazu is the highest volcano in Costa Rica while Poas is the second widest, which measures almost one mile in diameter, and Arenal is the most active. In 1963, Irazu erupted, spewing ash over San Jose and other areas for two years. The amount of ash that fell was so significant rooftops were covered with five inches while people had to walk around with a cloth to their face in order to breathe. Click here to read more.

Mexican Wars of Independence, 1810-21 - Part One

The eleven-year period of civil war that marked the Mexican wars of independence was largely a byproduct of the crisis and breakdown of Spanish royal political authority throughout the American colonies. A successful independence movement in the United States had demonstrated the feasibility of a republican alternative to the European crown. For most politically articulate criollos, however, a strong cultural affinity with the mother country, a preference for stability and continuity, and alienation from Mexico’s native and poor mestizo populations were significant disincentives to a radical break with the established order. Dissatisfaction with peninsular administrative practices and anti-criollo discrimination at many levels of the colonial government and society were important foci of discontent, but beyond small pockets of radical conspirators, these grievances had not yet spawned a pronounced wave of pro-independence criollo sentiment at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

The French occupation of Spain and the overthrow of the Iturrigaray junta created a vacuum of legitimacy, as it was no longer clear that the ad hoc peninsular administration represented any authority or interests other than its own. A revolt would no longer necessarily be a challenge to the paternal crown and the faith that it ostensibly defended, but would instead shake off the rule of the increasingly despised gachupines , as the peninsulares were derisively called. It was in this context that a radical criollo parish priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, was able to lead the first truly widespread insurrection for Mexican independence.

Hidalgo and Morelos

Soon after being named parish priest in the small town of Dolores, Hidalgo began to promote the establishment of various small manufacturing concerns. He realized the need for diversification of industrial activities in an area that had the mines of Guanajuato as its major business. At the same time, during his seven years at Dolores, Hidalgo promoted discussion groups at his house, where Indians, mestizos, criollos, and peninsulares were welcomed. The themes of these discussions were current events, to which Hidalgo added his own input of social and economic concerns. The independence movement was born out of these informal discussions and was directed against Spanish domination of political and economic life in New Spain. December 8, 1810, was set for the beginning of the uprising.

The plans were disclosed to the central government, and the conspirators were alerted that orders had been sent for their arrest. Pressed by this new development, on September 16, 1810, Hidalgo decided to strike out for independence without delay (this date is celebrated as Mexico’s independence day). The church bells summoned the people, and Hidalgo asked them to join him against the Spanish government and the peninsulares in the famous Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores): “Long live Our Lady of Guadalupe! Death to bad government! Death to the gachupines !” The crowd responded enthusiastically, and soon an angry mob was marching toward the regional capital of Guanajuato. The miners of Guanajuato joined with the native workers of Dolores in the massacre of all peninsulares who resisted them, including the local intendente .

From Guanajuato, the independence forces marched on to Mexico City after having captured Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, and Valladolid. On October 30, 1810, they encountered resistance at Monte de las Cruces and, despite a rebel victory, lost momentum and did not take Mexico City. After a few more victories, the revolutionary forces moved north toward Texas. In March of the following year, the insurgents were ambushed and taken prisoner in Monclova (in the present-day state of Coahuila). Hidalgo was tried as a priest by the Holy Office of the Inquisition and found guilty of heresy and treason. He was later condemned to death. On July 31, 1811, Hidalgo was executed by firing squad. His body was mutilated, and his head was displayed in Guanajuato as a warning to other would- be insurgents.

After the death of Hidalgo, José María Morelos Pavón assumed the leadership of the revolutionary movement. Morelos took charge of the political and military aspects of the insurrection and further planned a strategic move to encircle Mexico City and to cut communications to the coastal areas. In June 1813, Morelos convoked a national congress of representatives from all of the provinces, which met at Chilpancingo in the present-day state of Guerrero to discuss the future of Mexico as an independent nation. The major points included in the document prepared by the congress were popular sovereignty, universal male suffrage, the adoption of Roman Catholicism as the official religion, abolition of slavery and forced labor, an end to government monopolies, and an end to corporal punishment. Despite initial successes by Morelos’s forces, however, the colonial authorities broke the siege of Mexico City after six months, captured positions in the surrounding areas, and finally invaded Chilpancingo. In 1815 Morelos was captured and met the same fate as Hidalgo.

From 1815 to 1821, most of the fighting by those seeking independence from Spain was done by isolated guerrilla bands. Out of these bands rose two men, Guadalupe Victoria (whose real name was Manuel Félix Fernández) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca, both of whom were able to command allegiance and respect from their followers. The Spanish viceroy, however, felt the situation was under control and issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms.

After ten years of civil war and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos. The violent excesses and populist zeal of Hidalgo’s and Morelos’s irregular armies had reinforced many criollos’ fears of race and class

Serapes are commonly known as a type of Mexican shawl or blanket. This traditional item began as a masculine garment that reflected the technological and socioeconomic aspect of its production, distribution, and use, as well as the weaver’s personal experience. The designs vary tremendously, some that are simplistic and others quite elaborate.

The Mexican serape has a long and interesting history associated with the production of wool and cotton, two materials commonly used for a number of textiles by the Mexican people. The serape is made in numerous areas of the country, which is why it actually has many different names. For instance, the serape is also called chamarro, jorongo, cobiga, cotton, frazada, tilme, and gaban.

The fascinating aspect of the Mexican serape is that it is a perfect blend of weaving traditions such as European and Mesoamerican. That means that with the European style of weaving, you would see cotton and dyes used to create wonderful designs whereas for the Mesoamerican style, wool is used and mounted on a look to create designs. In other words, one is dyed to make unique designs while the other is weaved.

The woven styles associated with the Mesoamerican way of weaving the serape has been used primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the time this style of serape was developed, the quality in factories and workshops was amazingly good, created most often in states such as Coahuila, Guanajuato, Michoacan, Puebla, Quetetaro, and Zacatecas.

Another interesting fact about the Mexican serape is that it was a common garment used by people of all lifestyles. For example, it was common to see horsemen, workers, town residents, and even lepers all preferring to wear the serape. Keep in mind that these serapes were the type woven.

Now, the type of serape that used cotton and dyes was considered a luxury garment whereby aristocrats and hacienda owners would wear them. These serapes were worn to high society parties, for walks along the avenues, or simply out for a leisurely stroll. These serapes were so gorgeous that famed artists and travelers from other countries would marvel at their distinct and colorful design.

The Mexican serape was even worn by insurgents fighting in the War of Independence along with patriots in wars where the French and Americans fought. This means that the serape was a garment of choice whether a conservative or liberal. In fact, the Mexican serape was actually used in refuge camps to keep people warm and for clothing, as a shroud for loved ones killed in battle, and the Revolutionary’s flag. To this day, in the country of Mexico, this one item as well as the famous sombrero is what define the Mexican.

Serapes are also very versatile, being used as a shawl to dress up, a pillow on which to lay the head, as a coat for keeping warm, or even a bedcover. Even horsemen working the cold mountains and hot deserts use the serape as protection against the sun, rain, and snow. Remember, depending on the technique use for weaving, the serape can be a very sophisticated and elegant garment, a blanket on the back of a horse, or a blanket for a baby’s crib.

Although you can still find people in Mexico that make serapes by hand, whether with dye or the weaving process, because factories have made it possible for mass production, the popularity of the serape is increasing dramatically. Today, we see incredible colors and designs that were not available years ago. Typically, these more colorful serapes come from places like Contla, Chiauhtempan, and Tlaxcala.

Many of the designs you see used in serapes come from landscapes or photographs seen by the weavers of serapes that are made in Contla, Guadalupe, San Bernandino, Tlascala, Tlaxiaco, Teotitlan del Valle, Oaxaca, and Zacatecas. The serapes made in Oaxaca and Santa Ana del Valle are most often made with natural colored fibers with the designs being replicates of paintings created by well-known artists.

The serapes woven will commonly have two woven sections that are then sewn together although there are some looms capable of creating one, large serape. Serapes made out of the finest wool usually come from the Cora and Huichol Indians. Then, the serapes made with wool and chichicazatle, which is a vegetable fiber that produces a green color and has a tick texture usually comes from Oaxaca, San Pedro Mixtepec, Santa Catalina Zhanaguia, and San Juan Guivine.

Another fascinating fact about serapes is that in 1835 during the Texan War, soldiers would wear this garment over their uniforms that were very different from what the commanders wore. This particular war limited the number of serapes that could be made because of the high demand of the soldiers. When done wearing them for fighting, the soldiers would take the serape and give it to their girlfriends or wives, other family members, or simply use it as adornment for their home.

Without doubt, the Mexican serape is one garment that has a rich and diverse history. Today, serapes are just as popular, often used for garments, throws on the back of a couch, or an extra blanket on the bed to keep the chilly weather at bay. You can purchase serapes in Mexico and many South American’s country or you can find them online. With the connection to other countries through the internet, many weavers are taking advantage of the opportunity by selling beautiful serape creations online.

Throughout Peru, you will find several types of pottery, one being Chulucana. Using ancient, pre-Hispanic techniques by various cultures, the styles used are known as Colombian and negative painting, which is done by limiting oxygen flow in the furnace. These techniques are commonly used for making Chulucana pottery, which comes directly from Piura in the northern jungles. The natives of the Arabelas community create these pieces by hand, which are beautiful.

In addition to these two methods, another option is used in Simbila, Cajamarca, and Mollepampa. In this case, the Chulucana pottery shapes are made by hand with clay that has been beaten with a spatula. The pieces of pottery made are also made for both utilitarian and decorative purposes. In fact, the pieces made in Chulucanas has 250 artisans registered, making this pottery one of the finest in all of South America.

The motifs have become very popular. Made with rich, black color, the pottery is then glazed. You will often see portrayals of local people to include street vendors, musicians, dancers, and so on. Then, Chulucana pottery also depicts animals. Because of the beautiful design and durability of this pottery, it is widely traded in various markets of Arequipa, Juliaca, and Cusco.

One of the aspects of Peru that inspired the long tradition of pottery making is the climate. Although pottery making has been around for centuries, it has become increasingly popular in the last three decades. Everyone has his or her own favorite pottery design but some of the favorites include elders, old sages, mothers, lovers, laborers, and goddesses. Because of such diversity, Chulucana pottery has something for everyone.

The clay used for Chulucana pottery is mined from Mount Vicus. The clay is then mixed with water coming from melted snow and desert sand. Then the pieces of pottery are hand formed with the color and patterns being created with natural materials that are mixed with soil and applied to the surface of the pottery piece. To create the black color on the pieces, smoke from burning mango leaves and wood is used. The only areas not touched are those covered with the glazing mixture.

Once the Chulucana has been fired, it is polished by rubbing it with a fine stone. The polishing completes the pottery making process, which gives each piece a beautiful, semi-gloss finish. To finish off the pottery, it is signed by the artist. As you can imagine, Chulucana pottery is delicate so you will find small variations or imperfections that only lead to the intrigue.

Like all Peruvian tapestry, Ayacucho is named after the region in which it is made. This tapestry was originally created in Santa Ana, which is a smaller town just outside Ayacucho. Interestingly, Ayacucho tapestry comes in three distinct grades. First, you have the street quality, which is made from virgin wool and natural dyes. Second, there is the special quality Ayacucho tapestry, made from pre-washed wool and aniline dyes. Third, you have signed, which is woven and sighed by the master makers.

Typically, Ayacucho tapestry from Peru is created in geometric designs of nature, often taken from Codices such as ancient Aztecs, Mayans, or Incas, as well as temple carvings. In the town of Ayacucho, alpacas and sheep are raised specifically so the wool can be used to make this type of tapestry. Most often, the imagery seen in the tapestry has influence of the Incas along with Nazca people from earlier times.

You will also find tapestries depicting things such as flowers, birds, butterflies, and many other Andean cultural aspects. All of the sheep wool is handspun, and then naturally dyed with native vegetable, mineral, and animal dye. Unfortunately, with the growing gang violence and lack of proper food, women will work 15, 16, and 17 hours a day to create Ayacucho tapestries. Although the work is hard, they are courageous, creating true masterpieces.

Another common theme scene in Ayacucho tapestries is ancestral things and mythological creatures. Many times, you will find tapestries such as this made from a blend of 70% alpaca and 30% wool, which means durability, strength, and a beautiful piece to last for years. As you can imagine, this type of weaving over long hours provides the women and men with significant income. However, with violence looming, we see many people being forced from the weaving industry.

Regardless, for the Ayacucho tapestries that survive, they are amazingly beautiful and well made. With such vibrant colors and designs, the Ayacucho tapestry is in wide demand. The skill learned from ancestors continues being used today, creating some of the most amazing tapestries in all of South America.

When you hear “Arpilleras” tapestry, you need to understand that tapestries from Peru are named after the region in which they were produced. The name “Arpilleras” is actually from a Chilean tradition whereby rags were used to create small dolls. These dolls were then sewn together and sometimes, embroidered on large pieces of cloth. This interesting technique originated in Peru sometime around 1980. From there, it was adopted by shantytown inhabitants in the area around Lima.

Chilean women would put their sewing needles, thread, and rags to work, often used to spread the word about the missing, murdered, or tortured loved ones under the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet. Today, there is a gallery at the Case Western Reserve University called the Mather Gallery where you can still see some of these amazing pieces. In fact, the exhibit has some 40 Arpilleras tapestries on display from private collections of Chilean women.

All Arpilleras tapestries are handcrafted. The rags used are usually collected by women or even donated by Chilean women. The colors and hues are often bright and bold, showing the woman’s optimism and strength. The designs also include blacked-out figures of missing family members, as mentioned, as well as soldiers. In addition, the women’s faces in the designs have strong lines yet simple stitches.

Typically, you will see a common denominator in the designs of Arpilleras tapestry such as images, names, and photographs. For example, it would be common to see a tapestry piece with the words, “Where are they” stitched on. Sadly, more than 10,000 people disappeared while Pinochet was in leadership. Women during this time were required to take refuge in the Vicariate of Solidarity that was organized by the Catholic church of Rome. The basements were dark and the rooms used for secret meetings of the sisters, mothers, daughters, and wives of the lost or murdered.

These sewn together cotton or wool cloth are designed with such amazing detail that you cannot help but feel impressed. The wall hanging tapestries are beautiful but all tell a unique and often sad story. The patchwork, tapestry, and embroidery style literally walks you through scenes of daily life associated with the Chilean woman, giving you much respect for her hardships.

Caracas

Caracas is the capital of Venezuela. It is located in the north of the country, following the contours of a narrow mountain valley. The valley’s temperatures are springlike, and the urbanizable terrain of the Caracas Valley lies between 2,500 and 3,000 feet (760 and 910 m) above sea level. The Valley is close to the Caribbean Sea , separated from the coast by a wall of mountains that rise to more than 7,000 feet (2130 m). The historic center of Caracas, known as the Libertador Department, had a population of 1.9 million in 2004. The metropolitan area, or Caracas region, boasted a population of 5.1 million in 2004.

History

The city was founded in 1527 as Santiago de Le�n de Caracas by Spanish explorer Diego de Losada. The city of Caracas gave birth to two of America’s most important figures Francisco de Miranda (1750) and “El Libertador” Sim�n Bol�var (1783).

An earthquake destroyed Caracas on March 26, 1812 and was portrayed by authorities as a divine punishment to people rebelling against the Spanish Crown.

As the economy of oil-rich Venezuela grew steadily during the first part of the 20th century, Caracas became one of Latin America’s economical centers, and was also known as the preferred hub between Europe and South America. The Concorde used to fly weekly to Caracas implying its geographical and economical importance.

On October 17, 2004, one of the Parque Central Torre towers caught fire.

The city hosted the world heavyweight championship fight between George Foreman and Ken Norton on March 26, 1974. Foreman won by a 2nd round TKO.

Places of Interest

Capitolio Nacional

The National Capitol occupies an entire city block, and, with its golden domes and neoclassical pediments, can seem even bigger. The building was commissioned by Guzm�n Blanco in the 1870s, and is most famous for its Sal�n El�ptico, an oval hall with a mural-covered dome and walls lined with portraits of the country’s great and good.

Visit on Independence Day and you’ll catch a glimpse of the original Act of Independence of 1811, installed inside a pedestal topped by a bust of Bol�var and displayed only on this most auspicious of public days. The halls surrounding the salon are daubed with battle scenes commemorating Venezuela’s fight for independence.

Casa Natal de Bol�var

Skyscrapers may loom overhead, but there’s more than a hint of original colonial flavor in this neatly proportioned reconstruction of the house where Sim�n Bol�var was born on July 24, 1783. The museum’s exhibits include period weapons, banners and uniforms.

Much of the original colonial interior has been replaced by monumental paintings of battle scenes, but more personal relics can be seen in the nearby Museo Bolivariano. Pride of place goes to the coffin in which Bol�var’s remains were brought from Colombia; his ashes now rest in the National Pantheon.

Bol�var’s funeral was held 12 years after his death at the Iglesia de San Francisco, just a few blocks west, and it was also here that he was proclaimed ‘El Libertador’ in 1813. The church dazzles the eye with its richly gilded baroque altarpieces, and still retains much of its original colonial interior, despite being given a modernizing once-over by Guzm�n Blanco.

Museo de Arte Colonial

The gardens that surround this museum are almost as enticing as its interior. The museum is housed in a gorgeous colonial country mansion known as Quinta de Anauco, which is surrounded by beautiful greenery. Inside the house you’ll find meticulously restored rooms, filled with carefully selected works of art, furniture and period household odds and ends.

The quinta was well outside the historic town when it was built back in 1797, but today it’s an oasis in the inner suburb of San Bernardino. Head there late on a Sunday morning and you might catch a chamber music concert in rooms which were once the house stables.

Pante�n Nacional

Venezuela’s most venerated building is five blocks north of Plaza Bol�var, on the northern edge of the old town. Formerly a church, the building was given its new purpose as the final resting place for eminent Venezuelans by Guzm�n Blanco in 1874. The entire central nave is dedicated to Bol�var, with the altar’s place taken by the hero’s bronze sarcophagus, while lesser luminaries are relegated to the aisles. The national pantheon’s vault is covered with 1930s paintings depicting scenes from Bol�var’s life, and the huge crystal chandelier glittering overhead was installed in 1883 on the centennial of his birth. It’s worth hanging around to catch the ceremonial changing of the guard, held several times a day.

Parque Central

An short saunter east of Plaza Bol�var takes you from historic to futuristic Caracas. Rather than a welcome expanse of inner-city greenery, this park is a concrete complex of five high-rise residential slabs of somewhat apocalyptic-appearing architecture, crowned by two 53-storey octagonal towers while one of them is currently going under major repairs due to the fire which burned the building on October 17, 2004.

Parque Central is Caracas’ art and culture hub, loaded with museums, cinemas, the Complejo Cultural performing-arts center and the Ateneo de Caracas, home to the esteemed Rajatabla theatre company. The Mirador de la Torre Oeste, on the 52nd floor, gives a 360� bird’s-eye view of the city.

Plaza Bol�var

Leafy Plaza Bol�var is the focus of the old town with the inevitable monument to El Libertador, Simon Bol�var, at its heart. Modern high-rise buildings have overpowered much of the colonial flavor of Caracas’ founding neighborhood. But the lively area still boasts some important sites.

Part 4 - The Siege and Capture of Mexico

The siege of Mexico is one of the most memorable and most disastrous sieges of history. Cortez disposed his troops so as to occupy the three great causeways leading from the shore of the lake to the city, and thus cut off the enemy from their sources of supply. He was strong in the possession of twelve brigantines, built by his orders, which swept the lake with their guns and frequently defeated the maneuvers of the enemy, to whom a sailing ship was as new and as terrible a phenomenon as were firearms and cavalry. But the Aztecs were strong in numbers, and in their deadly hatred of the invader, the young emperor, Guatemozin, opposed to the Spaniards a spirit as dauntless as that of Cortez himself. Again and again, by fierce attack, by stratagem, and by their indefatigable labors, the Aztecs inflicted checks, and sometimes-even disaster, upon the Spaniards. Many of these, and of their Indian allies, fell, or were carried off to suffer the worse fate of the sacrificial victim. The priests promised the vengeance of the gods upon the strangers, and at one point Cortez saw his allies melting away from him, under the power of this superstitious fear. But the threats were unfulfilled, the allies returned, and doom settled down upon the city. Famine and pestilence raged with it, and the inhabitants suffered all the worst horrors of a siege.

But still they remained implacable, fighting to their last breath, and refusing to listen to the repeated and urgent offers of Cortez to spare them and their property if they would capitulate. It was not until the 15th of August 1521, that the siege, which began in the latter part of May, was brought to an end. After a final offer of terms, which Guatemozin still refused, Cortez made the final assault, and carried the city in face of a resistance now sorely enfeebled but still heroic. Guatemozin, attempting to escape with his wife and some followers to the shore of the lake, was intercepted by one of the brigantines and carried to Cortez. He bore himself with all the dignity that belonged to his courage, and was met by Cortez in a manner worthy of it. He and his train was courteously treated and well entertained.

Meanwhile, at Guatemozin’s request, the population of Mexico was allowed to leave the city for the surrounding country; and after this the Spaniards set themselves to the much-needed work of cleansing the city. They were greatly disappointed in their hope of treasure, which the Aztecs had so effectively hidden that only a small part of the expected riches was ever discovered. It is a blot upon the history of the war that Cortez, yielding to the importunity of his soldiers, permitted Guatemozin to be tortured, in order to gain information regarding the treasure. But no information of value could be wrung from him, and the treasure remained hidden.

At the very time of his distinguished successes in Mexico, the fortunes of Cortez hung in the balance in Spain. His enemy Velasquez, governor of Cuba, and the latter’s friends at home, made such complaint of his conduct that a commissioner was sent to Vera Cruz to apprehend Cortez and bring him to trial. But, as usual, the hostile effort failed, and the commissioner sailed for Cuba, having accomplished nothing. The friends of Cortez, on the other hand, made counter-charges, in which they showed that his enemies had done all in their power to hinder him in what was a magnificent effort on behalf of the Spanish dominion, and asked if the council were prepared to dishonor the man who, in the face of such obstacles, and with scarcely other resources than what he found in himself, had won an empire for Castile, such as was possessed by no European potentate. This appeal was irresistible. However irregular had been the manner of proceeding, no one could deny the grandeur of the results. The acts of Cortez were confirmed in their full extent. He was constituted Governor, Captain General, and Chief Justice of New Spain, as the province was called, and the emperor, fully acknowledging its services, complimented his army.

The news of this was received in New Spain with general acclamation. The mind of Cortez was set at ease as to the past, and he saw opening before him a noble theatre for future enterprise. His career, ever one of adventure and of arms, was still brilliant and still checkered. He fell once more under suspicion in Spain, and at last determined to present himself in person before his sovereign, to assert his innocence and claim redress. Favorably received by Charles V., he subsequently returned to Mexico, pursued difficult and dangerous voyages of discovery, and ultimately returned to Spain, where he died in 1547.

The history of the Conquest of Mexico is the history of Cortez, who was its very soul. He was a typical knight-errant; more than this, he was a great commander. There is probably no instance in history where so vast an enterprise has been achieved by means apparently so inadequate. He may be truly said to have affected the conquest by his own resources. It was the force of his genius that obtained command of the co-operation of the Indian tribes. He brought together the most miscellaneous collection of mercenaries who ever fought under one standard, –men with hardly a common tie, and burning with the spirit of jealousy and faction, wild tribes of the natives also, which had been sworn enemies from their cradles. Yet this motley congregation was assembled in one camp, to breathe one spirit, and to move on a common principle of action.

As regards the whole character of his enterprise, which seems to modern eyes a bloody and at first quite unmerited war waged against the Indian nations, it must be remembered that Cortez and his soldiers fought in the belief that their victories were the victories of the Cross, and that any war resulting in the conversion of the enemy to Christianity, even as by force, was a righteous and meritorious war. This consideration dwelt in their minds, mingling indeed with the desire for glory and for gain, but without doubt influencing them powerfully. This is at any rate one of the clues to this extraordinary chapter of history, so full of suffering and bloodshed, and at the same time of unsurpassed courage and heroism on every side.

Part 3 - The Retreat from Mexico

It was indeed in a serious position that Cortez found his troops, threatened by famine, and surrounded by a hostile population. But he was so confident of his ability to overawe the insurgents that he wrote to that effect to the garrison of Vera Cruz, by the same dispatches in which he informed them of his safe arrival in the capital. But scarcely had his messenger been gone half an hour, when he returned breathless with terror, and covered with wounds. “The city,” he said, “was all in arms! The drawbridges were raised, and the enemy would soon be upon them!” He spoke truth. It was not long before a hoarse, sullen sound became audible, like that of the roaring of distant waters. It grew louder and louder; till, from the parapet surrounding the enclosure, the great avenues which led to it might be seen dark with the masses of warriors, who came rolling on in a confused tide towards the fortress. At the same time, the terraces and flat roofs in the neighborhood were thronged with combatants brandishing their missiles, who seemed to have risen up as if by magic. It was a spectacle to appall the stoutest.

But this was only the prelude to the disasters that were to befall the Spaniards. The Mexicans made desperate assaults upon the Spanish quarters, in which both sides suffered severely. At last Montezuma, at the request of Cortez, tried to interpose. But his subjects, in fury at what they considered his desertion of them, gave him a wound of which he died. The position became untenable, and Cortez decided on retreat. This was carried out at night, and owing to the failure of a plan for laying a portable bridge across those gaps in the causeway left by the drawbridges, the Spaniards were exposed to a fierce attack from the natives which proved most disastrous. Caught on the narrow space of the causeway, and forced to make their way as best they could across the gaps, they were almost overwhelmed by the throngs of their enemies. Cortez who, with some of the vanguard, had reached comparative safety, dashed back into the thickest of the fight where some of his comrades were making a last stand, and brought them out with him, so that at last all the survivors, a sadly stricken company, reached the mainland.

The story of the reconstruction by Cortez of his shattered and discouraged army is one of the most astonishing chapters in the whole history of the Conquest. Wounded, impoverished, greatly reduced in numbers and broken in spirit by the terrible experience through which they had passed, they demanded that the expedition should be abandoned and they be returned to Cuba. Before long, the practical wisdom and personal influence of Cortez had recovered them, reanimated their spirits, and inspired them with fresh zeal for conquest, and now for revenge. He added to their numbers the very men sent against him by Velasquez at this juncture, whom he persuaded to join him; and had the same success with the members of another rival expedition from Jamaica. Eventually he set out once more for Mexico, with a force of nearly six hundred Spaniards, and a number of allies from Tlascala.

Montevideo

Montevideo is the capital, chief port and largest city in Uruguay. Montevideo is situated in the South of the country, at the northern mouth of the very wide Plata River (R�o de la Plata) estuary, 120 miles across from Buenos Aires at the southern side. The climate is mild, with average temperatures of approximately 13 �C.

History

The Portuguese founded Colonia del Sacramento in the 17th century despite Spanish claims to the area due to the Treaty of Tordesillas. The Spanish chased the Portuguese out of a fort in the area in 1724. Then, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala - governor of Buenos Aires - founded the city on December 24, 1726 to prevent further incursions.

In 1828, the town became the capital of Uruguay. There are at least two explanations for the name Montevideo: The first states that it comes from the Portuguese “Monte vide eu” which means, “I see a mountain”. The second is that the Spaniards recorded the location of a fountain in a map as “Monte VI De Este a Oeste” meaning “The sixth mountain from east to west”. The city’s full original name is San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo.

The city fell under heavy British influence from the early 19th century until the early 20th century as a way to circumvent Argentine and Brazilian commercial control. Argentinian dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas between 1838 and 1851 repeatedly besieged it. Between 1860 and 1911, the British built an extensive railroad network linking the city to the surrounding countryside.

During World War II, a famous incident involving the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee took place in Montevideo, which was a neutral port during the war. After the Battle of the River Plate with the British navy on December 13, 1939, the Graf Spee retreated to the port. To avoid risking the crew in what he thought would be a losing battle, Captain Hans Langsdorff scuttled the ship on December 17th.

Growth/Economy

Montevideo began as a minor settlement. In 1860, Montevideo had a population of 37,787. By 1884, the population had grown to 104,472, including many immigrants. By this time, trade had become the main source of revenue for the city and it became a rival to Buenos Aires. During the early 20th century, many Europeans immigrated to the city, and by 1908, 30% of the population was foreign born.

During the mid-20th century, military dictatorship and economic stagnation caused a decline whose residual effects are still seen today. Many rural poor flooded the city, with a large concentration in Ciudad Vieja.

Recently, economic recovery and stronger trade ties with Uruguay’s neighbors have led to renewed agricultural development and hopes for greater future prosperity.

As of 2004, the city has a population of 1.35 million out of a total 3.43 million in Uruguay. The greater metropolitan area has 1.8 million people.

Part 2 - The Invasion of the Empire

It was on the eighteenth of February 1519, that the little squadron finally set sail from Cuba for the coast of Yucatan. Before starting, Cortez addressed his soldiers in a manner both very characteristic of the man, and typical of the tone which he took towards them on several occasions of great difficulty and danger, when but for his courageous spirit and great power of personal influence, the expedition could only have found a disastrous end. Part of his speech was to this effect: “I hold out to you a glorious prize, but it is to be won by incessant toil. Great things are achieved only by great exertions, and glory was never the reward of sloth. If I have labored hard and staked my all on this undertaking, it is for the love of that renown, which is the noblest recompense of man. But, if any among you covet riches more, be but true to me, as I will be true to you and to the occasion, and I will make you masters of such as our countrymen have never dreamed of! You are few in number, but strong in resolution; and, if this does not falter, doubt not but that the Almighty, who has never deserted the Spaniard in his contest with the infidel, will shield you, though encompassed by a cloud of enemies; for your cause is a just cause, and you are to fight under the banner of the Cross. Go forward then, with alacrity and confidence, and carry to a glorious issue the work so auspiciously begun.”

The first landing was made on the island of Cozumel, where the natives were forcibly converted to Christianity. Then, reaching the mainland, they were attacked by the natives of Tabasco, whom they soon reduced to submission. These made presents to the Spanish commander, including some female slaves. One of these, named by the Spaniards Marina, became of great use to the conquerors in the capacity of interpreter, and by her loyalty, her intelligence, and, not least, by her distinguished courage became a powerful influence in the fortunes of the Spaniards.

The next event of consequence in the career of the Conquerors was the foundation of the first colony in New Spain, the town of Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, on the seashore. Following this, came the reduction of the warlike Republic of Tlascala, and the conclusion of an alliance with its inhabitants which proved of priceless value to the Spaniards in their long warfare with the. Mexicans.

More than one embassy had reached the Spanish camp from Montezuma, the Emperor of Mexico, bearing presents and conciliatory messages, but declining to receive the strangers in his capital. The basis of his conduct and of that of the bulk of his subjects towards the Spaniards was an ancient tradition concerning a beneficent deity named Quetzalcoatl who had sailed away to the East, promising to return and reign once more over his people. He had a white skin, and long, dark hair; and the likeness of the Spaniards to him in this respect gave rise to the idea that they were his representatives, and won them honor accordingly; while even to those tribes who were entirely hostile a supernatural terror clung around their name. Montezuma, therefore, desired to conciliate them while seeking to prevent their approach to his capital. But this was the goal of their expedition, and Cortez, with his little army, never exceeding a few hundred in all, reinforced by some Tlascalan auxiliaries, marched towards the capital. Montezuma, on hearing of their approach, was plunged into despondency. “Of what avail is resistance,” he is said to have exclaimed, “when the gods have declared themselves against us! Yet I mourn most for the old and infirm, the women and children, too feeble to fight or to fly. For myself and the brave men round me, we must bare our breasts to the storm, and meet it as we may!”

Meanwhile the Spaniards marched on, enchanted as they came by the beauty and the wealth of the city and its neighborhood. It was built on piles in a great lake, and as they descended into the valley it seemed to them to be a reality embodying in the fairest dreams of all those who had spoken of the New World and its dazzling glories. They passed along one of the causeways, which constituted the only method of approach to the city, and as they entered, Montezuma himself, in all his royal state, met them. Bowing to what seemed the inevitable, he admitted them to the capital, gave them a royal palace for their quarters, and entertained them well. After a week, however, the Spaniards began to be doubtful of the security of their position, and to strengthen it Cortez conceived and carried out the daring plan of gaining possession of Montezuma’s person. With his usual audacity he went to the palace, accompanied by some of his cavaliers, and compelled Montezuma to consent to transfer himself and his household to the Spanish quarters. After this, Cortez demanded that he should recognize formally the supremacy of the Spanish emperor. Montezuma agreed, and a large treasure, amounting in value to about one and a half million pounds sterling, was dispatched to Spain in token of his fealty. The ship conveying it to Spain touched at the coast of Cuba, and the news of Cortez’s success inflamed afresh the jealousy of Velasquez, its governor, who had long repented of his choice of a commander. Therefore, in March 1520, he sent Narvaez at the head of a rival expedition, to overcome Cortez and appropriate the spoils. But he had reckoned without the character of Cortez. Leaving a garrison in Mexico, the latter advanced by forced marches to meet Narvaez, and took him unawares, entirely defeating his much superior force. More than this, he induced most of these troops to join him, and thus, reinforced also from Tlascala, marched back to Mexico. There his presence was greatly needed, for news had reached him that the Mexicans had risen, and that the garrison was already in straits

Asuncion

Asuncion, population 500,000+, is the capital of Paraguay. Its Metropolitan Area, named Gran Asunci�n, includes the cities of San Lorenzo, Fernando de la Mora, Lambar�, Luque, Mariano Roque Alonso, �emby and Villa Elisa; having more than 1,500,000 inhabitants. It is the seat of government, principal port and chief industrial and cultural centre of the country. Main outputs of the manufacturing industries include footwear, textiles, and tobacco products.

Asunci�n is one of the oldest cities in South America, being known as Mother of Cities because it was from here where the colonial expeditions to found other cities departed, including the second foundation of Buenos Aires. The site of the city may have been first visited by Juan de Ayolas, but the town, called Nuestra Se�ora de la Asunci�n (Our Lady of the Assumption), was founded in August 15, 1537, by Juan de Salazar and Gonzalo de Mendoza. In 1731 an uprising under Jos� de Antequera y Castro was one of the first rebellions against Spanish colonial rule. After the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70), Asunci�n was occupied by Brazilian troops until 1876.

The city is home to the Godoi Museum, the Church of La Encarnaci�n, and the Pante�n Nacional, a smaller version of Les Invalides in Paris, where many of the nation’s heroes are entombed. Other landmarks include the Palacio de los Lopez (presidential palace) The old Senate building (a modern building opened to house Congress in 2003), the Catedral Metropolitana and the Casa de Independencia (one of the few examples of colonial architecture remaining in the city).

The downtown area of the city, near the port and centered on the Plaza de los Heroes, and the Plaza Uruguaya was largely developed during the 1970s and 1980s, leaving little of the colonial city. However it is now rather run down and somewhat dangerous at night. The ‘better’ areas of Asuncion are in the suburbs towards Avenida San Martin, where the Paraguayan elite shops in US-style shopping malls driving large SUVs. One of the most luxurious malls is called Shopping del Sol, which includes a Macys-style department store: Unicentro.

The main universities in the city are the Universidad Catolica Universidad Catolica(private, run by the church) and the Universidad Nacional (state run) Universidad Nacional. The Catolica has a site in the centre, next to the cathedral and a larger campus in the adjoining city of Lambare, while the Nacional has it’s main campus near the adjoining city of San Lorenzo. There are also a number of smaller privately run universities.

The major newspapers based in Asuncion are ABC Color, Ultima Hora, Noticias and La Nacion. Of these ABC and Ultima Hora are probably the best regarded, however all Paraguayan media has questions about its independence hanging over it.

The City is served by a river terminal downtown, an international airport in the suburb of Luque and the main long-distance bus terminus is on Avenida Republica Argentina.

Part 1 - The Mexican Empire

Of all that extensive empire which once acknowledged the authority of Spain in the New World, no portion, for interest and importance, can be compared with Mexico–and this equally, whether we consider the variety of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible stores of its mineral wealth; its scenery, grand and picturesque beyond example; the character of its ancient inhabitants, not only far surpassing in intelligence that of the other North American races, but reminding us, by their monuments, of the primitive civilizations of Egypt and Hindustan; and lastly, the peculiar circumstances of its conquest, adventurous and romantic as any legend devised by any Norman or Italian bard of chivalry.

The country of the ancient Mexicans, or Aztecs as they were called, formed but a very small part of the extensive territories comprehended in the modern Republic of Mexico. The Aztecs first entered it from the north towards the beginning of the thirteenth century, but it was not until the year 1325 that, led by an auspicious omen, they laid the foundations of their future city by sinking piles into the shallows of the principal lake in the Mexican valley. Thus grew the capital known afterwards to Europeans as Mexico. The omen that led to the choice of this site, an eagle perched upon a cactus, is commemorated in the arms of the modern Mexican Republic.

In the fifteenth century there was formed a remarkable league, unparalleled in history, according to which it was agreed between the states of Mexico, Tezcuco, and the neighboring little kingdom of Tlacopan, that they should mutually support each other in their wars, and divide the spoil on a fixed scale. During a century of warfare this alliance was faithfully adhered to and the confederates met with great success. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, just before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Aztec dominion reached across the continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. There was thus included in it territory thickly peopled by various races, themselves warlike, and little inferior to the Aztecs in social organization.

The government of the Aztecs, or Mexicans, was an elective monarchy, the sovereign being, however, always chosen from the same family. His power was almost absolute, the legislative power residing wholly with him, though justice was administered through an administrative system, which differentiated the government from the despotisms of the East. Human life was protected, except in the sense that human sacrifices were common, the victims being often prisoners of war. Slavery was practiced, but strictly regulated. The Aztec code was, on the whole, stamped with the severity of a rude people, relying on physical instead of moral means for the correction of evil. Still, it evinces a profound respect for the great principles of morality, and as clear a perception of those principles as is to be found in the most cultivated nations. One instance of their advanced position is striking; hospitals were established in the principal cities, for the cure of the sick, and the permanent refuge of the disabled soldier; and surgeons were placed over them, “who were so far better than those in Europe,” says an old chronicler, “that they did not protract the cure, in order to increase the pay.”

In their religion, the Aztecs recognized a Supreme Creator and Lord of the universe, “without whom man is as nothing,” “invisible, incorporeal, one God, of perfect perfection and purity,” “under whose wings we find repose and a sure defense.” But beside Him they recognized numerous gods, who presided over the changes of the seasons, and the various occupations of man, and in whose honor they practiced bloody rites. Such were the people dwelling in the lovely Mexican valley, and wielding a power that stretched far beyond it, when the Spanish expedition led by Hernando Cortez landed on the coast. The expedition was the fruit of an age and a people eager for adventure, for gain, for glory, and for the conversion of barbaric peoples to the Christian faith. The Spaniards were established in the West Indian Islands, and sought further extension of their dominions in the West, whence rumors of great treasure had reached them. Thus it happened that Velasquez, the Spanish Governor of Cuba, designed to send a fleet to explore the mainland, to gain what treasure he could by peaceful barter with the natives, and by any means he could to secure their conversion. It was commanded by Cortez, a man of extraordinary courage and ability, and extraordinary gifts for leadership, to whose power both of control and inspiration must be ascribed, in a very great degree, the success of his amazing enterprise.

Below is a sample inro. This inro has three section that open to reveal compartments inside. A silk cord passes through the inro, then the ojime bead, and finally ends at the netsuke. The ojime bead is slid down against the top of the inro to keep it closed.

Beads have forever been a part of history, covering virtually every culture. Although most beads are used to embellish and adorn, they also serve a number of other functions, which covers political events, social circumstances, religious beliefs, symbolism of curative powers, and have even been used as currency. Beads are also made in a huge variety of colors and designs, and can be made from all types of materials to include wood, metal, glass, ivory, and plastic.

Many of the ojime beads made from ivory were first carved in China’s Heibei province. However, during the mid-1980s, ivory was banned at which time ojime beads were made from boxwood. These beads are not carved by just anyone, but actual master carvers who consider this a very valuable art form. Many master carvers can create up to five to ten designs and while some will vary in color, the density and fine grain are what makes them unique. For a single ojime bead to be crafted by a skilled master carver, approximately four to six hours is required. Once the carving is complete, the beads are then signed by the artist, hand polished, and waxed to bring out their lustrous shine before being sold.

With Ojime beads, these first originated in Japan. The beads are meant to work with the netsuke so the Japanese people could hang items on a sash from their kimono. Although these small beads are beautiful and intricately made, they had a very distinct purpose for every day life. Because of the amazing carving of the ojime beads, they soon became somewhat of a fashion statement.

Now keep in mind that during the 17^th Century in Japan, pockets were not a part of clothing design. Therefore, the Japanese people had no way to carry tobacco, currency, medicines, and other small personal items. Over time, the tobacco pouch was created along with a writing set to keep things together and organized. The Inro for example was a box with anywhere from two to seven layers, which were used to store small objects. To keep the Inro together, cords made of silk were braided and then run through the box vertically.

As a way of maintaining the integrity of the braid, ojime beads were used. Then to close off the end of the cord, a small toggle called the netsuke was placed. With this design, the Inro could dangle from the kimono out of the way yet within close reach. Soon, the beautifully designed ojime bead became a piece of art expressed by the artist. With so many different designs, the Japanese individual could choose the style, color, and design that best matched his or her personal preference. For instance, some of the designs included whales, dogs, monkeys, snakes, crabs, tigers, dogs, dragons, mice, bats, roosters, owls, and much more.

While you can still find authentic ojime beads, today, many reproductions are also available, which are quite charming and typically carved from boxwood found in China, but following the traditions of the Japanese. The design of the ojime bead consists of a hole drilled from the top all the way down through the bottom. Additionally, depending on the design of the bead, there may also be some holes running lengthwise. The original and reproduced ojime beads are indeed amazing, refined pieces of art that are actually very sophisticated.

Netsuke (pronounced “net-ski” or “net-skeh”) are tiny sculptures that originated in Japan as an accessory to traditional Japanese clothing. They have since evolved over a time period of three hundred years into works of art that are both collected and revered by art aficionados across the globe.

Originally, Netsuke served both functional and aesthetic purposes. The Japanese kimono did not have pockets, so women would hold small objects in their sleeves, and men would wear a silk cord on their obi, or sash. From the cord, they would hang items such as tobacco pouches and coin purses. These items were known as sagemono. To stop the silk cord from slipping under the weight of their sagemono, they would attach a small toggle to the cord. These toggles were known as netsuke, which literally means, “root for fastening”.

All three items (the obi, sagemono and netsuke) were beautifully decorated with carvings, lacquer work and inlays of precious metals, ivory, coral and other rare or expensive materials. Netsuke were often carved into different designs, and were shaped as everything from animals to humans to abstract patterns. Because of their individuality and uniqueness, netsuke quickly became highly collectable and their design became a coveted art form. Netsuke were also a sign of social status, as the craftsmanship and the quality of materials used varied between individual pieces. The wealthy tended to own better quality netsuke.

Netsuke can be made from a large variety of material, the most popular being ivory. However, it is not uncommon to find netsuke made from wood, animal tusks and antlers, amber, pottery, bamboo and more. There are many different styles of netsuke as well. The most common style is called katabori, or figural netsuke. These are the netsuke that resemble people or animals. Another type of netsuke are sashi, which are long and thin. Manju netsuke are named after a bean paste dish because of their round shapes that look similar to buttons. Kagamibuta, which means “mirror lid”, are netsuke that consist of a metal lid and a bowl. Finally, mask netsuke are fashioned after the masks in the Noh or Kyogen style plays that were popular in Japan at the time. Common netsuke subjects included the animal characters taken from the Asian zodiac as well as mythological figures, heroes and scenes from everyday life, but netsuke subject matter was hardly limted to these and they could take the form of anything the artist could possibly imagine.

By the 19^th century, netsuke were no longer needed in their functional role. Japanese culture, and thus dress, was heavily influenced by European styles, and the kimono and obi fashion fell out of favor. They still remained highly collectable however, as the startling amount of detail that went into each netsuke was a true jewel in the crown of Japanese art development. Today, netsuke fetch hefty prices from collectors around the world who admire the intricate and delicate craftsmanship, and the uniqueness and individuality of these beautiful works of Japanese art

We just added more Chopsticks, Cinnabar and Lacquer Boxes, and Calligraphy Sets to our site.

Today we added the following new items to our site: Chopstick sets including some low priced family packs for the next time you have company over for Chinese food. Dozens of beautiful Silk Embroideries. A great selection of Jade Bangle bracelets (one of our best sellers) and several silk Placemat, Napkin, Chopstick sets.