The tagua nut has a strong resemblance to animal ivory, making it a wonderful resource for creating all types of beautiful things. For many years, the tagua nut was used primarily for making buttons but with new technology and more affordable materials such as plastics, a decline began. Even so, the tagua nut still has value in the making of other things to include chess set pieces, jewelry, handles for canes, dice, figurines, etc. In fact, many of the Victorian jewelry pieces made from the tagua nut are quite expensive.

The positive aspect of the tagua nut is that just one tree produces enough ivory to equal that of a female elephant trunk, meaning by choosing tagua, innocent animals are spared. Because of this, today we see the tagua nut again becoming very popular as more and more people are fighting to protect endangered species used for ivory. The only downfall is that these nuts, which grow in the rainforests of Panama, Ecuador, and a few other places around the world, are all harvested by hand to ensure the trees are not harmed. As you can imagine, the process is labor intensive. However, it does create needed jobs in these areas of the world!

The other benefit of using the tagua nut from Panama is that the rainforest is being protected as a sustainable income for the people. By growing these trees and keeping them harvested, forests are not degrading into poor quality land. That means the rainforest can remain a beautiful part of our world while the local tribesmen have income that helps when caring for their families.

The tagua tree is more like a palm tree that will grow upwards of 30 feet tall. Thriving on the damp areas of the rainforest, you will actually find different species of the tagua palm. As the tagua nut grows, it develops into protected clusters, each consisting of several egg-sized nuts. When the nuts are young, they are very tender, almost jelly like. Inside the young nuts is a special type of liquid that the people living in the rainforest love to drink. Additionally, many of the animals eat the tagua nut as a part of their regular diet. Then, as the tagua nut matures, it becomes extremely hard and durable, thus becoming a perfect choice for magnificent creations.

Tagua nut carvings from Panama have been such a great source of income for the forest people, giving them back self-sufficiency and pride. Many of these people are no longer able to live a full tribal life simply because of the demise of the rainforest so this type of harvesting allows them to retain their sense of self and history. Today, we sadly see many highways and modern buildings being built right through rainforests, causing this natural resource to erode. The good news is that many organizations have been formed to protect this type of land, with great success.

Once the tagua nuts are picked from the ground, the artisans carve them into amazing pieces. Interestingly, these carvings are so detailed and perfect, that many have become prized collections throughout the world. You will find that many of the tagua nut carvings from Panama depict the nature of the rainforest to include monkeys, birds, and various other animals. In fact, the carvings are typically considered an artistic expression for these tribal men, giving them the opportunity to incorporate their feelings, dreams, and aspirations into the designs.

In addition to figurines, the tagua nut is also commonly used for making everyday eating and cooking utensils. Some of the spirit sticks were used for ceremonies by the rainforest shamans (witch doctors) as well. Today, you can visit the Bernheim Gallery, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and Panama Audubon Society all displaying many of these beautiful pieces. For this reason, collectors around the globe try to get their hands on any type of carving, viewing them as incredible pieces of art.

Located in the northwest portion of Ecuador, a unique venture began called the Tagua Initiative was formed. This began in 1990 by Conservation International as a means of creating economic incentives associated with the tagua palm nut, trying to find a way for the harvests to be sustained. Because of this initiative, today we see almost 2,000 people belonging to the Comuna Rio Santiago-Cayapas, holding down jobs. However, these jobs depend on the rainforest being left unharmed, allowing the tagua nut to continue growing.

The tagua plant is somewhat like a palm tree that produces a nut. When this nut is young it tender, being filled with a liquid that the people living in the rainforest drink. However, as the tagua nut matures, it becomes very hard at which time it falls from the tree. Once on the ground, the people harvest it to create amazing things. Interesting, the nuts that are not used for carving are created into “bricks” used as a fuel source because of the high heat production.

The tagua plant must grow for about 20 years before it starts to produce fruit. Even so, the nuts are not good for harvesting for five to eight years after fruit is produced. Therefore, it is not a plant that could be profitable but its nuts are. The root system of this plant has a 98% survival rate if burned. Therefore, even if there were to be a horrendous fire, the tree would be rained on and continue to grow. Because the tree produces such a versatile nut, by purchasing things made from the tagua, the rainforest is being protected.

Although the tagua plant can be found in other places, Ecuador is just one of a few countries where you can find it. Because the tagua nut is hard and resistant, while still being beautiful, it is considered a prized possession, often used in the making of precious jewelry. Other things the tagua nut is used for include chess set pieces, figurines, key chains, buttons, and much more.

Prior to plastic buttons being introduced in the United States, approximately 20% were actually made from the tagua nut. In fact, during the 1920’s, $5 million annually was brought into Ecuador for the exportation of the tagua buttons. These buttons, along with the other type of tagua carvings are often called vegetable ivory because of the color and texture. Since animal ivory is on the decline, the tagua nuts have been considered a great substitute without anything being harmed.

Sadly, much of the rainforest area in this part of the world has been destroyed. However, this Comuna sits by the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, which is a very diverse area and one that is protected. This is an important hotspot since today, less than 1% of the earth is covered by rainforest hotspots yet it contains as much as 40% of biodiversity. Therefore, the Ecological Reserve protects this area so that workers can continue making their tagua nut carvings.

The Shipibo people live near the Ucayali River in areas of eastern Peru around in the Amazon Basin. These natives are extremely talented, making distinctive pottery that is traditional for their lifestyles. For example, Shipibo vases are handmade and then decorated using natural pigments from the earth. The geometric designs are representation of the visions of the Shipibo people, which is why this type of pottery is so unique and prized.

After the creation of a Shipibo vase or other piece of pottery, they are decorated and then fired in low heated, open fires. When done, the pieces of pottery are finished with a vegetable-based compound that makes it waterproof while creating a gorgeous sheen. These people live deep in the Amazon rainforest. Although they live a primitive life with limited contact with outside civilizations, the pottery made is unbelievable beautiful.

The men of the tribe are hunters and gatherers that still practice head hunting. However, the women are the pottery makers. Typically, clay is found, which takes several days in a dugout canoe to reach. The clay is then mixed with ashes coming from the bark of trees growing in the area. This mixture is then ground up into small fragments of broken pottery. From this, each piece is hand crafted, without using a potter’s wheel.

The sides of the pottery are made thin, which is what makes each pottery piece so amazingly lightweight. Once the pieces have dried in the warm sun for several days, the clay goes through the firing process. The white base color is created from a clay slip whereas the red and black geometric designs come from the process of boiling bark. Then, resin is obtained from tree sap, which gives the Shipibo pottery its unique glaze.

Most often, you would see the design of a cross and serpent. However, the geometric patterns are all easily recognized and characteristic of things seen in everyday life. For example, for special occasions, the decorations on the Shipibo pottery will depict a face and a body, which is believed to be a magical and religious expression. However, outsiders are not quite sure of the true meaning.

Keep in mind that Shipibo pottery actually started for utilitarian purposes. Pieces would be used for eating, preserving food, carrying water, and so on. However, as the Shipibo people discovered money and the things it could buy, they began selling the pottery, thus getting word out to the rest of the world about their amazing talent. Unfortunately, the trip to reach the market for the Shipibo people is a long, dangerous one.

For more than five centuries, Brazil has been a place of escape, a literal tropical paradise unlike any other place in South America. From the depths of the Amazon to the colorful celebrations, Brazil has and still is a land of mystery and intrigue. The Brazilian Indians were known for developing a very, centralized civilization. However, with the rough terrain of the jungle and the challenge of the humid and hot weather, very little was left behind for future generators to study. Even so, the few things that have been found include shell mounds, pottery, and even skeletons, each providing a small glimpse into the lives of these aboriginals.

Experts estimate that this first community within Brazil lived some six million years ago. Interestingly, today less than 100,000 people live in the jungle areas of Brazil, most deep into the interior where they are hard to reach and even harder to connect to. By 1500, a man by the name of Pedro Alvares Cabral sailed with 13 ships and 1,200 crewmembers from Lisbon to India. However, they accidentally arrived on the Brazilian coast close to today’s Porto Seguro. The interesting thing is that some people believe this was their intended target all along but regardless, the discovery was reported back to the King Joao III of Portugal who in 1531 sent the first settlers to this new country.

By 1534, with worry that other European countries would come, the coast was divided into 15 hereditary captaincies, all given to friends of the Crown. Over time and through various attempts, it was discovered that the land of Brazil was perfect for growing sugar cane. To meet the high demands of labor, the Indian population was enslaved, although many resisted. Soon, one of the most lucrative trades for the Brazilians was the sale of salves. These poor Indians were hunted down like animals in the interior and by the mid-1600s, they had been pushed as far as the Peruvian Andes in an attempt to avoid being captured.

Unfortunately, with the control of slaves and the exploits of the Brazilians, a large part of the interior of South American had gone over to Portuguese Brazil. From that time until the 17th century, the Indian slaves were replaced with African slaves who also resisted. Finding they were not nearly as vulnerable to European diseases, they were a better choice but even so, they too lived short lives. Soon, a community of runaway slaves called Ouilombos was created, which usually consisted of small groups that would hide deep in the forest.

Then in the late 17th century, another discovery was made in Brazil - gold. Once word leaked out, people came from all around, flooding the Brazilians and Portuguese. To help work the mines for gold, many African slaves were forced to dig, often dying in the mines through such long hours and harsh labor. Marching into Lisbon in 1807 was Napoleon Bonaparte and just two days after invading, Prince Regent, the Portuguese prince who one-day would become Dom Joao IV, left for Brazil. Arriving in Rio de Janeiro, the country of Brazil soon became the only New World colony serving as a European monarch seat.

The prince’s son, Pedro, was left behind but when his father returned in 1822, the son drew his sword, and cried out, “independence or death”. Prince Regent was a tired man and too weary to fight with his son, Brazil became an independent empire with no man ever losing his life. By the 19th century, a new crop was discovered, coffee, which soon replaced sugar cane as the primary export. Before long, coffee plantations were everywhere, again with slaves used for doing the hard labor. However, in 1888 when slavery was abolished, the work was taken over by European immigrants eager to work the estates.

Unfortunately, Brazil’s economy had weakened by 1929. With the government getting their hands into the plantations, opposition arose. However, trying to win the Liberal Election in 1930, they lost at which time the military took power, creating a new leader in Getulio Vargas. Although he remained in office for 24 years, he was forced out of office in 1954. From that time forward, changes were made and the economy began to rebuild. New leadership was appointed, land reform was established, education improved, and other changes were made but even so, many of the Brazilians today remain exceedingly poor.

When visiting Brazil, you will notice the vast diversity, one of the many things that make this such as fascinating country. One of the aspects of this country that pulls the diversity together is the love of music. For example, you will hear the Samba. Although it was at its greatest in the 1930s, the Samba is again a popular genre. A newer form of music hailing from the Caribbean is the Lambada, a beautiful, sensual rhythm that has become internationally popular. Literature is also an important part of the Brazilian culture, with many famous writers having written journals and books about the life of slavery.

However, when in Brazil, the greatest treat is the food. The people here live on Arroz, which is white rice, Feilao, black beans, Farinha, manioc flour, coupled with fish, chicken, or beef, usually a thick, juicy steak. Other dishes to try include Moqueca, a mouth-watering seafood stew that has been specially flavored with coconut milk and dende oil. Then there is okra and a variety of other vegetables mixed with onions, peppers, and shrimp, truly a magnificent dish. Other favorites include Feioada, bean, and meat stew, and Acaraje, which are beans that have been mashed with salt and onions, fried in the dende oil, and finally filed with manioc paste, dried shrimp, seafood, tomato sauce, and pepper - truly delicious.

As the largest country in the world, Brazil takes up about 50% of South America. This country borders Ecuador and Chile, and is a densely populated country. What you find there is four distinct regions that include the Atlantic seaboard, or the coastal ranges, the highland known as Planalto Brasileiro, the great depressions to the south with beautiful forest areas, scrubland, and low woods, and then finally, the massive Amazon Basin to the north, comprised of dense forest. Because of its diversity, you will enjoy the richness of the culture, which is seen in the architecture, the food, the dress, the festivals, and the people.

Bolivia is often referred to as the Tibet of the Americas, being the most isolated and highest of all Latin American republics. In addition, Bolivia is the most indigenous country on the continent, with more than 50% of the current population holding on dearly to their traditional culture. Sadly, Bolivia is also among the poorest of all South American countries but even so, there is richness in the history and culture. Best of all, this country boasts some of the most breathtaking Andean landscapes imaginable.

All of this coupled with the remnants of ancient civilizations, you would have to agree when you visit that this destination is actually a rich country, full of pride, adventure, and incredible things to do and see. Historians believe that civilization of this country dates back some 21,000 years. Of all eras, probably the Pre-Columbian were the most influential. For example, the Tiahuanaco people who lived on and around Lake Titicaca ruled from 600 to 1200 AD. Then, the Incas came, setting up a vast empire that consisted of Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and the northern part of Chile.

By 1531, the Spanish conquest was going strong, under the leadership of a man called Francisco Pizarro. Very quickly, the conquistadors had used the trust of the Indians, securing territory that would become known as Alto Peru. By 1544, a new discovery was made in silver. This helped boost the Spanish economy for more than 200 years but with the mining conditions being extremely hard, the majority of the enslaved Indian and African slaves died. Although Bolivia had been trying to gain independence for many years, it would not come until 1824 when Lieutenant Antonio Jose de Sucre fought in the Battle of Ayacucho. Just one year later, the country was formally declared its own republic.

After that, the territory of Bolivia quickly expanded. However, Chile wanted more land than it was given, leading to the War of the Pacific that lasted from 1879 to 1884. Chile came out the winner, claiming 527 miles of coastline, along with the Port of Antofagasta. Unfortunately, other countries to include Brazil, Peru, and Argentina followed suite, started chipping away at Bolivia’s land and by 1943, a huge border dispute erupted with Paraguay over oil deposits. That led to the Chaco War from 1932 to 1935, which created a tremendous amount of unrest and the change of reform-minded military leaders.

However, probably the most impacting development for Bolivia came in the form of the populist Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionarario, known more often as MNR. Under the leadership of Victor Paz Estenssoro in 1951, the MNR provoked an armed revolt that we know as the April Revolution of 1952. Although Bolivia’s military was defeated, in 1964, the MNR had been overthrown and in 1985, Estenssoro was defeated. Today, the country is beginning to strengthen although unemployment remains extremely low. The only serious challenge currently being faced is that Bolivia has a bad reputation for growing cocaine, which has hurt ties with the United States.

However, most areas of Bolivia are safe, as long as you stay within the right zones and pay attention to your guide’s advice. When visiting this beautiful country, you will enjoy wonderful music, which is at the heart of the Bolivian people. Interestingly, the sounds you hear are regional so when in the Andes, you would hear an almost haunting type of music, specifically in the Altiplano area whereas other areas such as Tarija have a lighter sound. To go along with the music are incredible dances. The Cueca, Tinku, and Auqui-auqui are all popular culture forms of dance that have changed very little over the past 3,000 years.

Of the people living in Bolivia, most speak Spanish although other languages include Aymara, which is the Altiplano language, or Quechua, the Incan language. The food in Bolivia is simply delicious. Most dishes come with meat, shredded lettuce, rice, and potatoes. However, to spice up any dish, a favorite type of hot sauce made from pepper pods and tomatoes is wonderful, called Llajhua. To wash down the food, most people drink wine, Bolivian beer, or a serious type of maize liquor!

Nestled between several countries to include Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Peru, and Paraguay, Bolivia is still the fifth largest country in all of South America. The regions are divided in fifths. First, you have the Altiplano, a densely populated area that features an 11,460-foot plateau stretching from the border of Peru north of Lake Titicaca and south to the border of Argentina, and the highlands, where you will enjoy the best climate. Then, you have the Yungas, which is actually a transition zone laying between the cold peaks of the Andes and the hot and humid Amazon rainforest. Next is Chaco, which is an uninhabited plain with hot, humid temperatures running along the Argentina and Paraguay borders. Finally, there are the underdeveloped savannas, scrubland, swampland, and rainforest of the Amazon Basin.

As a whole, the country of Bolivia is sparsely populated. Because of this, it is also one of the best places in all of South America for wildlife. For instance, it is common to see llama, jaguar, vicuna, anteater, tapir, alpaca, bear, turtle, alligator, capybara, condor, and rhea. You will also find a wide range of climates because of the diversity of the land. Typically, Bolivia stays more on the cool side with periods of rain usually from November to March. The colder cities include Potosi and La Paz while the region of Altiplano gets the most rain.

The people of Bolivia are very religions, often celebrating an Indian or Christian god, saint, or important political event. With this, you will find the country celebrating with a number of festivals such as the Fiesta de la Vifgen de Candelaria, which is a festival in honor of the virgin. Lasting a full week, you will enjoy food, drink, dancing, music, and many uninhibited people. Another exciting festival is the Festividad de Nuestro Senor Jesus del Gran Poder, which is held in May and June to honor Jesus Christ.

The country of Bolivia has much to offer visitors. You can enjoy some of the more popular areas such as La Paz, Lake Titicaca, definitely something to see, Sorata, and Cochabamba, or if you prefer, head to some of the more challenging areas to include Salar De Uyini, Laguna Colorada, and San Vicente, the place where the famous Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid lost their final battle. The scenery is magnificent and the people inviting.

The word, “Argentina” conjures up all kinds of thoughts, mostly of colorful costumes, sexy tango, Evita, gauchos, and romance. Although these are all attributes of a beautiful country, Argentina is also a country with a declining economy and unstable government. Even so, the mystic and romance of this country remains while boasting numerous cultural attractions and natural wonders. To the north, you will find vast deserts, the Iguazu Falls, which are truly magnificent, and an incredible and varied geography. For example, while in Argentina, you could travel to the capital city of Buenos Aires, a sophisticated area that is actually quite westernized or venture deep into tropical rainforests.

This country tucked into the shadows of the Andes Mountains is considered a safe destination for tourist travelers and an affordable place to visit. During the pre-Colombian days, Argentina was a farming community where sedentary Indians lived and hunted. Although the Spanish tried to invade the country, the Indians held strong to their resistance. Today, Buenos Aires is a bustling, successful city but it was not established until 1580. Even then, it remained a quiet place for about 200 years.

Then, with the Indian populations spread out and not enough work, huge cattle ranches were created, which are called Haciendas. With this, the legendary Gaucho (Argentina cowboy) would be formed. By 1776, Buenos Aires became Rio de la Plata’s capital, which showed that the domination of Spain was getting old and bothersome. Still unhappy with the interference seen by Spain, the revolution of 1810 began, which would eventually lead to Argentina’s independence in 1816.

As the 20th century rolled around, things continued to change, moving to new leadership. However, from 1976 to 1983, Argentina underwent what is known as the “Dirty War”. With this death squads operated, which resulted in 10,000 to 30,000 people disappearing. The best-known victims, called Madres de la Plaza de Maya, tried to keep public vigils for those whose mysteriously disappeared. With continuing internal conflict, the battle for the Malvinas and Falklands erupted. The result was hysteria in both countries, causing a British flotilla to sail around the world to save remaining areas of the map, although small.

While the British were able to stake claim on some of the land, the true ownership of the Malvinas is still today disputed. Interestingly, the Argentine foreign minister offered to buy the islands in 1995, offering each of the 2,000 islanders $800,000 in United States money but with the British believing that oilfields were located just offshore, more fighting is likely. Since that time, Argentina has undergone many leadership changes, economic struggles, and a prolonged recession.

However, when you visit Argentina today, in spite of the ongoing struggles of these people, you cannot help but feel overwhelmed by the beauty seen all around. For example, the country is permeated with magnificent art and architecture, and the lifestyle is festive and inviting. However, literature is strong in Argentina with many famous writers being born from this country. With such an interest in cultural trends, you will find wonderful art galleries and museums dotting the country, along with a lively theater district.

Even with such a stronghold of the arts, dance is what most people think of when they travel to Argentina, specifically the tango. This particular dance captures the minds and imagination of lovers from around the world. Sensual, the tango is regarded as one of the best dances in the world. However, you will also find folk music on the rise. In addition to music and dance, soccer is also a favorite pastime of Argentina, with the country taking the coveted World Cup in 1976 and again in 1986.

Most of the locals speak Spanish although the immigrants will also speak their native tongue. In addition, Italian, although not widely spoken, is understood. In all, 17 languages are used by the people of Argentina, some that include Guarani, Matacos, Quechua, and Tobas. Now, if you want to enjoy a steak, no place on the planet will you taste beef anything like that in Argentina. Favorite dishes include Parrillada, which are mixed grills but keep in mind that many times, every part of the animal will be used to include the udders, intestines, and so on. For dessert, the Helado, which is ice cream, is incredible.

Most people are surprised by the vastness of Argentina but considering that it is the eighth largest country in the world and the second largest in South America, it should come as no surprise. To the west of Argentina, you will find Chile, which is separated by the Andean Cordilleras range. Then to the north are Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The openness and mass land is so amazing and so diverse.

The way you look at this country is in four distinct provinces. These include the Andes to the west, the fertile lowland to the north, central Pampas, and then Patagonia. The interesting thing is that each of these regions is different. For instance, the Andes are comprised of grape-filled foothills and glacial mountains, the lowland is subtropical rainforest, the Pampas is both dry and humid land, and Patagonia offers glacial regions along with pastoral steppes.

If you enjoy the outdoor activities, then you will love the 20 national parks where protected wildlife live. Some of the animals in these areas include the Caiman, Puma, Rhea, Andean Condor, Flamingo, Penguins, and more. Of course, the rainforests features colorful birds, monkeys, and other fascinating animals. While this country is colorful and full of life, Argentina offers very few festivals. Regardless, to experience South America and all its beauty, Argentina is an ideal place to start.

Much like the Mayan civilization, the Inca Indians were way before their time, considered an advanced civilization with multiple accomplishments. Migrating from the Andes in 1200 AD, the Incas began taking control over many of the other tribes in the area. As a new tribe was conquered, the Incas were able to learn more and more while forcing their own belief and religion onto the people. For the next 100 years, this tribe had grown so massive that the people covered areas from the northern parts of Ecuador all the way to Chili, making them a powerful civilization.

The Inca language is called Quechua and the empire Tawantinsuyu, translating to “land of four quarter.” This empire and all its land were divided, meeting at the capital called Cuzco, Peru. Interestingly, if you were to travel to the central highlands of the Andes today, you would still be able to enjoy and marvel at many of the empire ruins.

By the year 1532, the Inca Indians had accumulated vast land that stretched from the Pacific coast, heading across the Andes to the Atlantic coast, and then from the central portion of Chili all the way to Ecuador. Because of their incredibly organized government that was based in the capital city, the Incas were able to achieve and conquer. The capital city was the home to the emperor, regarded simply as “The Inca”. This emperor ruled over every aspect of the Inca civilization, being the leader to noblemen, who were responsible for the success of this civilization with their unmatched skills.

The Inca Indians were also very talented farmers, being the first people to grow potatoes. In addition to this crop, the Incas also grew sweet potatoes, Indian corn, cassava, quinou, peanuts, beans, squash, peppers, cotton, coca, tobacco, and much more. For transportation, Alpacas and Llamas were used. In fact, these animals carried hand crafts made by the noblemen, and building supplies.

The religious belief was that all deities were created to last forever, be all-powerful, and invisible, each created by one god called Wiraquocha or the sun god. Then, the King Incan was known as the Sapan Intiq Churin, which meant “Only Son of the Sun.” While there were many important temples in the Inca civilization, the one deemed the most important for the male god is called Qorikancha. In addition, Wiraquocha’s partner was called Killa or the moon god.

Historians show us that the Inca people also had the concept of sin. For this reason, they frequently offered the gods, food, llamas, an alcohol made from maize called Agha, and other things. Although no one is certain whether human sacrifice was a part of the Inca civilization, many people believe that indeed children were offered but only in special circumstances.

Although quite civilized, one man was able to conquer this massive tribe. This man’s name was Pizarro who arrived prior to a massive civil war breaking out, which left the military of the Incas weak and thus easy to destroy. First, Pizarro took the Incan leader, Atahualpa, captive. Although Pizarro was bribed with mass quantities of gold, he took it only to have Atanhualpa killed any way. For the next 40 years, Pizarro would continue killing off the Inca people until the man named Tupac Amaru fell. Sadly, his body was dismembered by the order of Pizarro to stop any further resistance.

The Huichol Indians of Western Central Mexico live in the Sierra Madre Occidental. They call themselves the “Wixarica” or “the people” in their native language, “Wixa” (The “x” is a rolled “r”). Their aboriginal religion consists of four principal deities, Corn, Eagles, Deer and Peyote, all descended from their Sun God, “Tau.” These people have accepted small parts of Catholicism. There are many evangelical Christian churches forming in recent years after the Bible-translating work of Americans, Joe and Barbara Grimes, which began in the 1950s and followed up by later Evangelical Christian missionaries. Most Huichols, however, retain traditional beliefs and are resistant to change.

The Huichol are originally from the State of San Luis Potosi to the east of the parts of Durango, Jalisco, Zacatecas and Nayarit in which the Sierra of the Huichol is found. It is said that Wixa is a form of Chichimecha, common to the Indians of San Luis Potosi. They refer to several entities as family members, such as “Grandfather Fire,” “Grandmother Growth” and “Great Grandfather Deer-tail,” the last of which was the shaman who brought them to their part of the Sierra, probably to avoid either the Aztecs or the Conquistadors.

The Huichol are dirt farmers, gleaning a living from land that is desert for half the year and jungle the other half. In summer, when the rains come, they live on their ranchos (farms) and make cheese from the milk from their cattle, which they slaughter and eat usually only during fiestas (religious gatherings). For the most part, their diet consists of tortillas, made from the purple “Sacred corn,” beans, rice and pasta, with the occasional chicken or pig, from which they make “Chicherones,” chili peppers, all supplemented with goods provided by nature, like “weizz,” a legume gathered from trees, or “ceruelas” wild plums and guiabas (guavas).

The craftsmanship of the Huichol includes embroidery, beadwork, sombreros (hats), archery equipment, prayer arrows, and weaving, as well as “cichuries,” woven or embroidered bags of great beauty and religious significance which also serve great practical purpose. It is uncommon to ever see a Huichol without his cichurie.

In winter they gather around water holes (”ojos de agua”) in villages of adobe and burnt adobe houses interspersed with “Caretons,” houses on stilts made with wood, cornstalks, lashing, and thatched roofs. Each settlement will have a “riviki” (God’s House) or “Caliwey” (a temple), where religious ceremonies and fiestas take place.

Often a large settlement will have only a few extended families. Inbreeding and the health problems associated with it have become a problem. A very large percentage of Huichols are born with congenital cleft lip or palate.

The Huichol seek autonomy in their land, but have two governments, one native to the Huichol and one answering to the Mexican Government through “Municipal Agents” in the larger settlements. Schools have been established in the Huichol Zone during the last 40 years, both federal and church, but also a private Junior High School, which has led to some friction between “Town” and “Gown” among members of the tribe. Friction also exists between converts to Christianity and followers of the old religion, which means the missions, are just barely tolerated by some of the people.

With the building of roads in the Huichol Zone in the last ten years, new influences are impacting the social fabric of the Huichol. Where mules, horses and burros used to be the main forms of transport, trucks are becoming more prominent, importing food, medicines and beer. New diseases that these people do not have a natural immunity to are also entering the society, so the length of time that traditional Huichol society can endure is an open question.

Aztecs are Indians known for their control over south and central Mexico, ruling primarily between the 14th and 16th centuries. The name “Aztec” comes from their homeland of the north called Azatlan. Amongst the Indians, they call themselves Mexica. In addition, the language spoken by the Aztecs comes from the Nauatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family.

This particular tribe of Indians created the Toltec civilization, which was the result of hundreds of people coming to Lake Texcoco. The families that migrated to this area later were left to choose only swamp land, leaving the prime land to those who arrived first. For the late comers, the swamp provided just a single plot of land, completely enveloped by marshes. Although it seemed impossible, the Aztecs took their difficult situation, turning it into what we know as the Aztec Empire.

History shows us that the Aztec Empire was created partially on legend, which states that from the swampy area, an eagle could be seen eating a snake while perched high upon a cactus growing out of the swamps. This legend also states that the priests claimed when they came to this new land, this was the first thing they saw.

Through hard work and determination, the capital city called Tenochtitlan was completed in 1325. Amazingly, technology for this time included pipelines, bridges, and chinapas, which were small islands created by piling up mounds of mud. The Aztec people took full advantage of the chinapas, growing many foods such as beans, corn, chilies, squash, tobacco, and tomatoes.

Then, as a way of showing homage and respect to the gods, the capital city was covered in huge religious statues. These gods according to the Aztec beliefs is that they control every aspect of the Astec’s daily life. For example, Uitzilpochtli is the sun god, Coyolxauhqui is the moon goddess, Tlaloc is the rain god, and the creator of the calendar and writing is Quetzalcoatl.

In addition to worshipping gods, the Aztec people also believe strongly in sacrifices. In fact, the high priest would choose a man or woman, laying him or her over a round stone. Then with a very sharp knife, the individual’s heart would be cut out. With this type of sacrifice, the belief was that the good gods would stop the bad gods from carrying out evil deeds.

They also believed that the good gods drew their strength and power from the shed human blood and heart. Because they depended so heavily on the gods, they needed to continually keep them strong. Some rituals involved warriors being sacrificed, which was considered the ultimate honor. If a small sacrifice was required, then a prisoner would be used.

For marriage among the Aztec people, the groom would tie his shirt to the bride’s dress as an expression of bonding. After being tied together, the couple would then burn incense for four consecutive days. When done, the wedding ceremony could commence.

A change came about in 1519 when a Spanish explorer by the name of Hernando Cortes brought with him more than 500 men into the Aztec territory in their search for gold. Because the Aztec Indians believed Cortes was a white god so the held him in high regard. However, once the Aztecs saw Cortes and his men melting down their gold statues to ship back to Spain, their opinion changed dramatically.

To stop this, the Aztec Indians attacked Cortes and all his men, driving them away from the Aztec territory. However, just one year later, the Spanish came back to attack the capital city, destroying the entire Aztec civilization. Although the Aztec Indians had long overcome challenges, this battle would be the end to these people, leaving us with only the legend and history of their struggles and accomplishments.

Peru is known for many incredible things, one being the San Pedro de Cajas tapestry. Absolutely, exquisite this tapestry is all hand woven, made from 90% sheep wool and just 10% cotton. San Pedro de Cajas tapestry is vibrantly colored using all-natural dyes that come from cochineal insects. The patterns are all very, distinct, boasting white houses, red roofs, and magnificent green backgrounds. The fascinating thing about this type of Peruvian tapestry is that it can be displayed from either front or back with two wood dowels that are stretched across both top and bottom.

San Pedro de Cajas sits high in the Andes Mountains of Peru about 13,000 feet up. Each tapestry design is washed, dyed, and brushed prior to the start of the weaving process. The artisans are both male and female, each working hard to ply wool and dye. In fact, you will find entire families involved with the tapestry making process. The wool used comes from the area, which allows the dye to work beautifully.

The region of San Pedro de Cajas received its name from the legend of the patron saint named San Pedro who came to Cesar Yuri Roman in a dream. In this dream, San Pedro asked Cesar to return to his town to help but Cesar did not take the dream seriously, instead ignoring the request of San Pedro. However, just a few days later, a massive mudslide destroyed Cesar’s business. With this, a broke Cesar returned to San Pedro de Cajas, starting a new tapestry weaving business, a skill that had been passed down through his family.

Determined to reconcile the damage he had caused himself, Cesar worked on a particular weaving of the image of a saint. Unfortunately, the ancient traditions and techniques were crude, making it impossible. At that time, only geometrical shapes could be woven. However, still determined to succeed, Cesar developed a new technique, which he called padding. With this, he could work the tapestry in more detail with realistic designs and figures. The new system was very, successful, leading other local artisans to adopt it for their own designs.

Because the San Pedro de Cajas tapestries have such incredible colors and intricate designs, they have become exceedingly popular and in high demand. From that time forward, the tapestries have continued to grow in popularity and today, people from around the world visiting Peru can visit Cesar’s tapestry museum. His success with color and design was so incredible that the local government honored him with the title of Doctor in Craftsmanship that came along with a beautiful medal.

With the blend of materials and the hand looming, you will fall in love with the San Pedro de Cajas tapestries. What most people comment on are the clear, vibrant colors and realistic designs. In fact, these tapestries are generally considered art more so than textile. If you have a chance to get your hands on one of these tapestries, you will have a lifelong treasure!

Plaza de Armas is a place located in Peru where potters made Quinua Ayacucho pottery. Of all art forms in Peru, pottery lands at the top of the list. You will find a number of interesting techniques, shapes, colors, and designs. However, most of these are specific to the region within Peru in which the pottery is made.

The town of Quinua is most known for the talent of the potters. They are famous for manufacturing pieces of pottery known as “Quinua Ceramics”. Each of these pieces is designed to display local customs. Quinua is just 23 miles from the capital city and is the site of the Battle of Ayacucho where the country received its independence when fighting against Spanish troops.

In addition to Quinua Ayacucho pottery, this city is also famous for the high quality of red and cream clay that is used to make the pottery pieces. Although the forms and techniques are simple, almost child-like, the results are what amaze people. Many of the pottery pieces are chapels, churches, bulls, and houses. However, it is also common to see figurines of peasant farmers, neighbors busy gossiping, and religious themes.

Now, you can purchase Quinua Ayacucho pottery from a number of shops that specialize in these pieces or if you prefer, directly from one of the artisans who will sign the piece made. Of all the pottery pieces, the chapel and churches are the most popular. Typically, these ceramic pieces are used on mantles, bookshelves, or tables. Interestingly, the church pottery piece is used to protect homes from evil spirits, which is why you see them displayed.

When visiting Quinua, you can visit the Plaza area by climbing the charming cobblestone walkway. The buildings in this town are whitewashed and there is even a quaint village church. These pottery pieces are exported around the globe because of the quality and whimsy of each piece. In fact, the local people have become quite good at marketing the products, getting word out about these brightly colored pottery pieces. However, today you will even find Quinua Ayacucho pottery made in pastel colors, something unheard of years ago. In fact, original pieces were all earth tone.

Although you will find more and more modern pieces of pottery being developed you can certainly still buy the traditional church or other figurines. While there are many skilled artisans that make Quinua Ayacucho pottery, one of the most famous artists is Mamerto Sanchez. As you walk along the main road, you will find a number stalls where pieces are sold.

Pottery made in South America varies dramatically based on the tribes and regions. For years, the people of Mexico, along with South and Central America tried to make pottery creations using low fired clay. Pottery and ceramic was done by hand and then fired in large outdoor kilns. Typically, you would see creations for everyday things to include jugs, pipes, cooking pots, whistles, jugs, tiles, and a number of other things.

Interestingly, musical instruments were commonly made from pottery. Although these instruments began as domestic cooking pots, the South American people discovered that when the pots contained varying levels of food or drink, they produced different sounds. Among the most popular creations were whistles and flutes. In fact today, if you were to visit South America, you would find globular flutes everywhere used to imitate objects to include deer skulls and conch shells.

The whistling jars from South America are called “silbador”, which are made by connecting a number of pots that have a spout on the end and then the special whistle mechanism on the other side. These pots are then filled with water and rocked back and forth to create movement. The movement of the water changes the level of air that pushes over the whistle, thus the different sounds. The earliest such whistle is dated back to 500 AD.

Many of these pots were created in the shape of a parrot, monkey, or some other animal. Keep in mind that while many of these instruments have a number of chambers, this does not change the sound as once believed. Now, the globular flutes found today are created with an air duct and stop. One such example found in Mexico and Malaya is shaped as a bird. Also unique to South America are pottery panpipes, which are made by pressing clay onto a cane core and then joined with several of varying lengths, which produces the different sounds. Typically, the blowhole is elliptical that helps to make the sound easier.

When compared with flutes, pottery trumpets are a rare find even though they were distributed widely throughout Europe, India, Western Europe, parts of Africa, and South America. Taking the clue from conch shells, pottery imitations soon followed, known as “potuto”. Another pottery instrument coming out of South America is called the “intambula”, which is a drum that has a skin held over it by one man while a second man beats on it. More commonly known in the United States as a kettle drum, these drums were designed a little different in that they did not have an open end and they can be tuned. For drums, two-headed pottery styles are very hard to find although some still exist in some Indian villages found only in North America.

Another common instrument made from pottery in South America is the rattle. Experts believe these instruments were copies of gourd rattles. Depending on the rattle, some are designed with a rattlesnake molded on the outside, which is a suggestion of the rattling sound produced. In most cases, these pottery instruments are very elaborately decorated and used for special ceremonies. Throughout the years, archaeologists have been able to uncover different types of South America pottery, giving them an important look into the people and types of natural materials used. The pottery unearthed also provided a glimpse into settlement patterns of the settlers, religious beliefs, and agricultural practices. We have learned much from the South American people through their work with pottery, recreating many of the styles that are so rich in history.

San José

San José is the capital and largest city of the nation of Costa Rica. It is also the capital of San José Province.

San José is located in the center of the country. It is on a mountain plateau at an elevation of about 4,000 feet above sea level. In 1997 the city had an estimated population of 329,154 people: the latter half of the 20th century was a period of rapid growth for the city, considering that in 1950 its population was a mere 86,900.

History

San José was a small village of little significance until 1824. In that year, Costa Rica’s first elected head of state, liberal Juan Mora Fernández, decided to move the government of Costa Rica from the Old Spanish colonial capital of Cartago and make a fresh start with a new city. This was a time of much optimism in the newly independent nation of Central America, of which Costa Rica was at that time a state (see: History of Central America). The new capital of San José grew rapidly. Because of its late 18th century origin, San José has little of the Spanish colonial architecture common in most other Latin American capitals.

The University of Costa Rica was established here in 1843. San José also serves as the headquarters of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. Since then, it has grown rapidly and extended in the Central Valley. Along with Alajuela, Heredia, Cartago and other cities, the population reached 1.57 million in 2004, number 76 in the list of largest cities in the Americas. The cities of Heredia, Alajuela and San José are very close to each other. The Juan Santamaría International Airport and the Palacio de los Deportes are located in the metropolitan area, GAM San José.

Important places in the city include the Banco Central de Costa Rica, La Sabana Metropolitan Park, Avenida Central (which is one of the major commercial areas in the city). The Central Park and la Plaza de la Cultura are visited by thousands of workers and tourists every day. The Melico Salazar Theater (National Theatre) and the Cathedral are landmarks in the central area. In the south, the Clínica Bíblica (a private hospital) and the Pacific Train Station are important buildings.

Attractions

In San Jose there are many museums and attractions offering a different alternative to explore the city. One of these is the gold museum offering a rare look at the different gold artifacts of ancient Latin American civilizations. A second interesting attraction for the less adventurous is the Lancaster Botanical Gardens just outside of San Jose. A third famous Costa Rican location is the Hotel and Casino del Ray, which is a famous hotel in the heart of San Jose with the famous Blue Marlin Bar inside.

Spanish Conquest and Colonization of El Salvador

When the Spanish first ventured into Central America from the colony of New Spain (Mexico) in the early sixteenth century, the area that would become El Salvador was populated primarily by Indians of the Pipil tribe. The Pipil were a subgroup of a nomadic people known as the Nahua, who had migrated into Central America about 3000 B.C. The Nahua eventually fell under the sway of the Maya Empire, which dominated the Mesoamerican region until its decline in the ninth century A.D. Pipil culture did not reach the advanced level achieved by the Maya; it has been compared, albeit on a smaller scale, to that of the Aztecs in Mexico. The Pipil nation, believed to have been founded in the eleventh century, was organized into two major federated states subdivided into smaller principalities. Although primarily an agricultural people, the Pipil built a number of large urban centers, some of which developed into present-day cities, such as Sonsonate and Ahuachapan.

The Pipil were a determined people who stoutly resisted Spanish efforts to extend their dominion southward. The first such effort by Spanish forces was led by Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Hernan Cortes in the conquest of Mexico. It met with stiff resistance from the indigenous population. Alvarado’s expeditionary force entered El Salvador–or Cuscatlan, as it was known by the Pipil–in June 1524. The Spaniards were defeated in a major engagement shortly thereafter and were forced to withdraw to Guatemala. Two subsequent expeditions were required–in 1525 and 1528–to bring the Pipil under Spanish control. It is noteworthy that the name of the supposed leader of the Indian resistance, Atlacatl, has been perpetuated and honored among the Salvadorans to the relative exclusion of that of Alvarado. In this sense, the Salvadoran ambivalence toward the conquest bears a resemblance to the prevailing opinion in Mexico, where Cortes is more reviled than celebrated.

The Spanish had come to Central America seeking, at least in part, to add to the store of precious metals that constituted the most immediate spoils of the Mexican conquest. In the small colony that they dubbed El Salvador (”the savior”), they were severely disappointed in this regard. What little gold was available was accessible only through the laborious and timeconsuming method of panning, a process that consumed the effort of numerous impressed Indian laborers for a number of years. Denied the opportunity for quick riches, the conquistadors and later the Spanish settlers eventually came to realize that the sole exploitable resource of El Salvador was the land.

El Salvador thus was relegated to the status of a backwater of the Spanish Empire. In this state of neglect and isolation, the seeds of the country’s politico-economic structure were planted. Large tracts of land were granted by the crown, initially under the terms of the encomienda (see Glossary) system, whereby the grantee was invested with the right to collect tribute from the native inhabitants of a designated area. The manifest abuse of the Indian population that resulted from the encomienda system contributed to its replacement in the mid-sixteenth century by the repartimiento system. Under repartimiento, representatives of the crown were empowered to regulate the work allotment and treatment of Indian laborers. Although more humane in theory, it was a system that was extremely vulnerable to abuse. The colony’s distance from the mother country, the ease with which royal officials could be corrupted, and the prevailing disregard among the elite–made up of peninsulares, born in Spain, and criollos born in the New World of Spanish parentage–for the plight of the Indians militated against any substantive improvement in living conditions for the indigenous population.

Although landholders in El Salvador exercised nearly absolute power within their fiefdoms, they did not begin to realize the full economic potential of their holdings until they instituted the system of widespread cultivation of a single lucrative export commodity. The first of these commodities was cacao, which flourished during the latter half of the sixteenth century. Cultivation of indigo followed and produced tremendous profits during the eighteenth century. Largely as a result of the importance of the indigo trade, the colonial capital of San Salvador eventually came to be considered the second city of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, the Spanish administrative unit that encompassed most of Central America during the colonial period. The indigo boom effectively played itself out by the mid nineteenth century, however, after the discovery in Germany of a synthetic dye that could be produced much more economically.

The fortunes of the Spanish Empire waned throughout the eighteenth century and were dashed completely by the Napoleonic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 1808. As the Salvadorans moved toward independence, the legacies of their progenitors, both Indian and Spanish, were firmly fixed. The predominance of agriculture was a fact of life well before the Conquest; the Spanish contributed to this basic system by emphasizing production for export versus cultivation for subsistence. Individual loyalties under the pre-Conquest civilization were given primarily to one’s family and to one’s village; Spanish rule did little or nothing to change this attitude or to build any substantial sense of national identity among the common people. Religious influence on daily life was strong in both pre-Conquest and colonial societies. The simple animistic nature of the Indians’ beliefs allowed for the ready assimilation of Roman Catholic dogma. As elsewhere in Latin America, the hierarchical structure of the church complemented the rigid stratification of colonial society. In many ways, independence would serve only to exacerbate the inequities inherent in that society.

San Salvador is the capital of El Salvador.

The origins of the city can be traced to before the Spanish Conquest. It is near the present location of San Salvador that the Pipil tribes, descendants of the Aztecs in Mexico, established their capital, Cuzcatlán. Not very much is known about this city, since its inhabitants abandoned it in an effort to avoid Spanish rule.

Although the city was founded in the 16th century, it was rebuilt and changed location twice afterwards. Originally founded in what is now the colonial town of Suchitoto, north of the present-day city, it was moved to the Valle de Las Hamacas (literally Valley of the Hammocks due to the intense seismic activity that characterizes it), which boasted more space and more fertile land, thanks to the pristine Acelhuate River (sadly, it is now extremely polluted). As the population of the country remained relatively small up until the early 20th century, the city grew slowly. It became somewhat of a tourist attraction during the early 20th century as it was considered a beautiful city: with a population of approximately 30,000 it was small, spacious, and clean.

Today, San Salvador is a modern city. The city proper has a population of about half a million, and covers an area of approximately 75 square kilometers. The explosive growth during and after the war created a metropolitan area (the AMSS, Area Metropolitana de San Salvador) that is administered as a whole. The AMSS covers an area of approximately 610 square kilometers and has a population of about 2.1 million.

The Pan-American Highway runs through the city, connecting it with other urban areas in Central America and the United States. San Salvador is also the overall transportation and economic hub of the nation, since it is home to one third of the population and one half of the country’s wealth.

The city’s modern downtown area has many high-rise buildings, but very few of the historic landmarks remain, due to the earthquakes that have hit the city since its founding in 1525 by Spanish Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado. Today, the city produces beer, tobacco products, textiles, and soaps.

San Salvador is a large city whose population is starkly divided between the wealthy and impoverished. The wealthier neighborhoods of Escalón, Ciudad Merliot and San Benito boast luxury shops (some of the largest malls in Central America, including the largest shopping mall in Central America, Metrocentro), five-star hotels, tree lined avenues and beautiful, well-guarded mansions. However, most of the other neighborhoods in Apopa and Soyapango, among others, are hot, dusty and overcrowded, and are plagued by skyrocketing crime rates.

While the city is relatively wealthy compared to the rest of the country (per capita GDP is approximately USD $6000, compared to a national average of approximately $2300), poverty is one of its major problems. Pollution is also a major problem, with San Salvador considered the most polluted city in Central America (although far from the extremes of Mexico City).

The city has suffered from severe earthquakes over the years, the most disastrous of which occurred in 1854. Also worthy of mentioning is the 1917 eruption of the San Salvador volcano, which resulted in three major earthquakes and damaged the city so extensively that the government was forced to move the capital to the present-day city of Santa Tecla, then named Nueva San Salvador. The most recent Earthquake, in 2001, resulted in considerable damage, especially in Las Colinas suburb where a landslide destroyed most of Las Colinas. During the 1980s, conflicts in El Salvador erupted into a civil war, and many people fled to the city since most of the fighting occurred outside of it (San Salvador itself was not directly affected by the war until the final offensive of 1989).

Pre-Columbian Society and the Conquest of Belize

Colonially oriented historians have asserted that the Maya had left the area long before the arrival of British settlers. But many Maya were still in Belize when the Europeans came in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Archaeological and ethno-historical research confirms that several groups of Mayan peoples lived in the area now known as Belize in the sixteenth century. The political geography of that period does not coincide with present-day boundaries, so several Mayan provinces lay across the frontiers of modern Belize, Mexico, and Guatemala. The Mayan province of Chetumal, for example, consisted of the northern part of present-day Belize and the southern coast of the Mexican state Quintana Roo. In the south, spreading west over the present-day frontier between Belize and Guatemala, were the Mopán Maya, and still farther south, the Chol-speaking Manche groups. In central Belize lay the province of Dzuluinicob, meaning “land of foreigners” or “foreign people.” This province stretched from New River in the north to Sittee River in the south, and from close to the present-day Guatemalan border in the west to the sea. The apparent political center of this province was Tipu, located east of modern Benque Viejo del Carmen. Lamanai, several towns on New River and on Belize River, and Xibún on Sibun River, were included in this province.

Christopher Columbus traveled to the Gulf of Honduras during his fourth voyage in 1502. A few years later, two of his navigators, Martín Pinzón and Juan De Solís, sailed northward along the coast of Belize to Yucatán. In 1519 Hernán Cortés conquered Mexico, and Pedro Arias Dávila founded Panama City. Spain soon sent expeditions to Guatemala and Honduras, and the conquest of Yucatán began in 1527. When Cortés passed through the southwestern corner of present-day Belize in 1525, there were settlements of Cholspeaking Manche in that area. When the Spanish “pacified” the region in the seventeenth century, they forcibly displaced these settlements to the Guatemalan highlands. The Spanish launched their main incursions into the area from Yucatán, however, and encountered stiff resistance from the Mayan provinces of Chetumal and Dzuluinicob. The region became a place of refuge from the Spanish invasion, but the escaping Maya brought with them diseases that they had contracted from the Spanish. Subsequent epidemics of smallpox and yellow fever, along with endemic malaria, devastated the indigenous population and weakened its ability to resist conquest.

In the seventeenth century, Spanish missionaries from Yucatán traveled up New River and established churches in Mayan settlements with the intention of converting and controlling these people. One such settlement was Tipu, which was excavated in the 1980s. People occupied the site during pre-classic, classic, and post-classic times, and through the conquest period until 1707. Though conquered by the Spanish in 1544, Tipu was too far from the colonial centers of power to be effectively controlled for long. Thousands of Maya fled south from Yucatán in the second half of the sixteenth century, and the people of Tipu rebelled against Spanish authority. Although Tipu was too far south for the Spanish of Yucatán to control, it was apparently too important to ignore because of its proximity to the Itzá of the Lago Petén Itzá region of present-day Guatemala. In 1618 and 1619, two Franciscans, attempting to convert the people built a church in Tipu. In 1638 a period of resistance began in Tipu, and by 1642, the entire province of Dzuluinicob was in a state of rebellion. The Maya abandoned eight towns at this time, and some 300 families relocated in Tipu, the center of rebellion. In the 1640s, Tipu’s population totaled more than 1,000.

Piracy along the coast increased during this period. In 1642, and again in 1648, pirates sacked Salamanca de Bacalar, the seat of Spanish government in southern Yucatán. The abandonment of Bacalar ended Spanish control over the Mayan provinces of Chetumal and Dzuluinicob.

Between 1638 and 1695, the Maya living in the area of Tipu enjoyed autonomy from Spanish rule. But in 1696, Spanish soldiers used Tipu as a base from which they pacified the area and supported missionary activities. In 1697 the Spanish conquered the Itzá, and in 1707, the Spanish forcibly resettled the inhabitants of Tipu to the area near Lago Petén Itzá. The political center of the Mayan province of Dzuluinicob ceased to exist at the time that British colonists were becoming increasingly interested in settling the area.

Mayan Civilization in Belize

Perhaps as early as 35,000 years ago, nomadic people came from Asia to the Americas across the frozen Bering Strait. In the course of many millennia, their descendants settled in and adapted to different environments, creating many cultures in North America, Central America, and South America. The Mayan culture emerged in the lowland area of the Yucatán Peninsula and the highlands to the south, in what is now southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, western Honduras, and Belize. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly half a millennium of European domination. All evidence, whether from archaeology, history, ethnography, or linguistic studies, points to a cultural continuity in this region. The descendants of the first settlers in the area have lived there for at least three millennia.

Prior to about 2500 B.C., some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages. While hunting and foraging continued to play a part in their subsistence, these farmers domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers– which are still the basic foods in Central America. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Mayan core culture. Between about 2500 B.C. and A.D. 250, the basic institutions of Mayan civilization emerged. The peak of this civilization occurred during the classic period, which began about A.D. 250 and ended about 700 years later.

Farmers engaged in various types of agriculture, including labor-intensive irrigated and ridged-field systems and shifting slash-and-burn agriculture. Their products fed the civilization’s craft specialists, merchants, warriors, and priest-astronomers, who coordinated agricultural and other seasonal activities with a cycle of rituals in ceremonial centers. These priests, who observed the movements of the sun, moon, planets, and stars, developed a complex mathematical and calendrical system to coordinate various cycles of time and to record specific events on carved stelae.

Belize boasts important sites of the earliest Mayan settlements, majestic ruins of the classic period, and examples of late postclassical ceremonial construction. About five kilometers west of Orange Walk, is Cuello, a site from perhaps as early as 2,500 B.C. Jars, bowls, and other dishes found there are among the oldest pottery unearthed in present-day Mexico and Central America. The site includes platforms of buildings arranged around a small plaza, indicating a distinctly Mayan community. The presence of shell, hematite, and jade shows that the Maya were trading over long distances as early as 1500 B.C. The Mayan economy, however, was still basically subsistence, combining foraging and cultivation, hunting, and fishing.

Cerros, a site on Chetumal Bay, was a flourishing trade and ceremonial center between about 300 B.C. and A.D. 100. It displays some distinguishing features of early Mayan civilization. The architecture of Mayan civilization included temples and palatial residences organized in groups around plazas. These structures were built of cut stone, covered with stucco, and elaborately decorated and painted. Stylized carvings and paintings of people, animals, and gods, along with sculptured stelae and geometric patterns on buildings, constitute a highly developed style of art. Impressive two-meter-high masks decorate the temple platform at Cerros. These masks, situated on either side of the central stairway, represent a serpent god.

The Maya were skilled at making pottery, carving jade, knapping flint, and making elaborate costumes of feathers. One of the finest carved jade objects of Mayan civilization, the head of the sun god Kinich Ahau, was found in a tomb at the classic period site of Altún Ha, thirty kilometers northwest of present-day Belize City. Settled at least as early as 200 B.C., the Altún Ha area at its peak had an estimated 8,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. At the beginning of the second century A.D., the inhabitants built their first major structure, a temple. The visitor today sees a group of temples, priests’ residences, and other buildings around two adjacent plazas. In the vicinity, there are hundreds of other structures, most of which are still unexcavated. The Maya continued to rebuild some of the temples until almost the end of the ninth century. Excavations at Altún Ha have produced evidence suggesting that a revolt, perhaps of peasants against the priestly class, contributed to the downfall of the civilization. People may have continued to live at or to visit the site in the postclassical period, even though the ceremonial centers were left to decay. Some rubbish found at Altún Ha shows that people were at the site in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, perhaps to reuse the old structures or undertake pilgrimages to the old religious center.

Other Mayan centers located in Belize include Xunantunich and Baking Pot in Cayo District, Lubaantún and Nimli Punit in Toledo District, and Lamanai on Hill Bank Lagoon in Orange Walk District. Xunantunich, meaning “Lady of the Rock,” was occupied perhaps as early as 300 B.C., but most of the architecture there was constructed in the late classic period. As in all the lowland Mayan centers, the inhabitants continually constructed temples and residences over older buildings, enlarging and raising the platforms and structures in the process. The views are breathtaking from Xunantunich’s “El Castillo,” which, at thirty-nine meters, is the tallest man-made structure in Belize. Lamanai, less accessible to tourists than Altún Ha or Xunantunich, is an important site because it provides archaeological evidence of the Mayan presence over many centuries, beginning around A.D. 150. Substantial populations were present throughout the classic and postclassical periods. Indeed, people living in the area were still refacing some of the massive ceremonial buildings after the great centers, such as Tikal in neighboring Guatemala, had been virtually abandoned in the tenth century.

In the late classic period, probably at least 400,000 people inhabited the Belize area. People settled almost every part of the country worth cultivating, as well as the cay (see Glossary) and coastal swamp regions. But in the tenth century, Mayan society suffered a severe breakdown. Construction of public buildings ceased, the administrative centers lost power, and the population declined as social and economic systems lost their coherence. Some people continued to occupy, or perhaps reoccupied, sites such as Altún Ha, Xunantunich, and Lamanai. Still, these sites ceased being splendid ceremonial and civic centers.

The decline of Mayan civilization is still not fully explained. Rather than identifying the collapse as the result of a single factor, many archaeologists now believe that the decline of the Maya was a result of many complex factors and that the decline occurred at different times in different regions.

Increasing information about Mayan culture and society helps explain the development, achievements, and decline of their ancient civilization and suggests more continuities in Mayan history than once had been considered possible. The excavation of sites, such as those at Cuello, Cerros, Altún Ha, Xunantunich, and Lamanai, has shown the extraordinary persistence of Mayan people in Belize over many centuries.

The Ocarina is a handcrafted musical instrument that produces a sound similar to that of a flute. This ancestral instrument looks more like a modern bike racing helmet than an instrument. The Ocarina has been around for tens of thousands of years and played to create beautiful music. In its basic form, the Ocarina was used in the Stone Age and some of the earliest models have been unearthed by archaeologists in Central Africa.

Even so, the Ocarinas have also been made and played in various parts of the world. For instance, in China, they are known as Hsuan, in France a Cou-Cou, and then in Italy, Ocarina, which actually translates to “Sweet Little Goose.” This simple instrument works on a very basic principle just as the flute. There is a mouthpiece designed with an airway that works by forcing a smooth breath through the slit, which then goes across the window and onto the reed or lip. With this, the air breaks into vortexes, giving rise to the oscillations that are heard by the different finger placements on the holes.

For the finger holes, these are simple chambers making the tone of the sound change. As with other instruments, the Ocarina also has a musical scale known as the “Four Hole Western Hole”. As you look at the Ocarina, you will notice there are four holes of varying sizes. Because of the way that the holes are strategically placed, when playing you can easily slide the finger from on hole to the next. Although it takes a little practice as with any other instrument, with practice and patience, you will soon get the hang of it.

The Ocarina is also designed in a number of art forms. For example, the songbird is bright blue and because of the special design, the sound is superb. Most are made by being placed on a potter’s wheel and then altered and changed until the sound is clean and smooth. The clay is fired at high temperatures, giving the Ocarina a smooth surface. Each instrument is made by hand so each instrument is a one-of-a-kind.

When played by Central and South American natives, the Ocarina produces an almost eerie sound, one that is rich and distinct. The shape of the Ocarina is globular, often with an angled or pointed type front that does not change with the change of the weather. To clean the instrument, you can actually place it in the dishwasher in most cases or wash it by hand.

Whether making an Ocarina that is brightly colored with geometrical shapes, one in the shape of an animal, or perhaps one that is rustic like you would see natives using, this type of instrument is fun to own and very inexpensive to buy. You can check out the various search engines and simply type in “ocarinas” to see all the amazing styles.

Nicaraguan pottery is absolutely, beautiful and today, very popular. Certain Spanish colonists known as the Gallegos and Bracamonte settled in Nicaraguan sometime in the late 1500s. The village was called San Juan el Batista, which years later, was renamed to San Juan de los Platos because of the successful pottery industry. In fact, the Spaniards were paid in the form of pottery. Then when Nicaragua became independent from Spain in 1821, the village was again renamed, this time to San Juan de Oriente.

Interestingly, the making of pottery was considered work only to be performed by women, as well as other domestic chores to include cleaning, cooking, and caring for the children. In fact, the women living in San Juan made the pieces of pottery all by hand, just as their ancestors had done, using a free form design and coil method. The firing of the pottery was down outside in a campfire where the pieces would be fired quickly in an open flame, usually from one to three hours. Today, you will still find some woman in San Juan still using this same method.

In addition, oxen pulled carts are still seen, each pulling clay in burlap sacks coming from the farms as they head into the city. The clay is taken to the workshop where artisans empty the clay from the bags into a hole, filled with water to help soften it. The next day, the clay is soft enough to be worked, at which time sand is added. Then, the clay is put on top of a sack at which time it is stamped to help soften it further while also blending in the sand and working out any unwanted air bubbles. This process generally takes about three hours, which is per mix.

After the clay has been softened and blended, it is massages by hand, clearing out roots and rocks. One person will dedicate up to 16 hours, again for one mix. At this point, the clay is stomped on by foot and then ready to be formed. The artisan then takes a ball of the clay and using a kick wheel will begin to shape it into many different shapes. Then, it is cut from the wheel using a piece of nylon. The clay is set aside and the pieces all turned upside down, allowing the indentation to form for the base. For this process, it takes anywhere from 5 to 25 minutes, depending on the size of the ball and the skill level of the artisan.

Once all the pieces of clay have been shaped, the surface is polished. With this process, any smaller roots or stones can be seen or felt, allowing the potter to remove them and continue with the polishing. When this is done, the clay is smooth and the surface ready for color. For just the polishing portion of the procession, it takes the artisan between 10 and 30 minutes per piece.

Now, once all the pieces of clay are smooth, black liquid clay is painted on. This special clay known as “black clay” or “cogove” comes from El Sonce. When diluted with water and then strained over several days, what remains is the black clay. In fact, some natives will use black clay as face paint. However, for making Nicaraguan pottery, several layers are applied. Once all the pieces of clay are painted, they are placed into a plastic bag and allowed to dry up to seven days. After completely drying, the clay again undergoes the polishing phase with a flat-type instrument.

The next phase involves applying a layer of Oxido de Zinc, which is bone white oxide. The tone creates a nice base on which additional color can be painted onto the pottery. Again, the wet pieces are placed in a plastic bag where they dry for 2 to 10 hours. After drying, the Nicaraguan pottery pieces again go through the polishing process. Now, beautiful designs are traced, drawn, or painted onto the pieces using a pencil. Typically, repetition patterns are drawn onto a piece of paper at which time they are transferred through tracing but at different angles. On the other hand, curricular lines are painted using the wheel.

For the decoration and painting of the Nicaraguan pottery, using the colored oxides, the designed are painted on with paintbrushes made from recycled plastic shell belonging to a ballpoint pin and the hair of children who had haircuts. This process takes anywhere from one to four hours, which depends on the level of detail. Once all the color is painted on, the pottery pieces are smoothed out and polished. Again, they are dried (not in plastic), which takes up to six days.

The next step of creating Nicaraguan pottery is to outline the designs with a sharp instrument. This particular technique must be done very carefully so just the top layers of the clay are removed, allowing the rough surface of the style to remain. The tool uses is generally from broken bicycle spokes or a broken umbrella and then sharpened to a find point.

Firing is the next step that has changed somewhat over the years. Originally, kilns were shared and precious but today, you find many of the Nicaraguan artisans with their own. Each kiln is made from clay bricks, along with other necessary materials needed for making a burning oven. Some of the potters who are just starting out in the pottery business will experiment with the process but in most cases, the firing would start with two hours of heat.

From there, the heat is gradually increased over a three-hour period. Then, the heat is turned up high, burning the clay pieces for about four hours. Finally, once the kiln has cooled (usually the next day), the pottery is removed and with a soft cloth, shined. To bring out the shine to its fullest, natural shoe polish is used. The result is amazing piece of art that is a one-of-a-kind and completely, handcrafted.

Nicaragua’s Pre-colonial Period

Present-day Nicaragua is located south of the pre-Columbian culture areas of the Maya and the Aztec in Mexico and northern Central America. Although conventional wisdom states that the culture of lower Central America did not reach the levels of political or cultural development achieved in Mexico and northern Central America, recent excavations in Cuscutlatán, El Salvador may prove that assumption erroneous.

Two basic culture groups existed in pre-colonial Nicaragua. In the central highlands and Pacific coast regions, the native peoples were linguistically and culturally similar to the Aztec and the Maya. The oral history of the people of western Nicaragua indicates that they had migrated south from Mexico several centuries before the arrival of the Spanish, a theory supported by linguistic research. Most people of central and western Nicaragua spoke dialects of Pipil, a language closely related to Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec. The culture and food of the peoples of western Nicaragua also confirmed a link with the early inhabitants of Mexico; the staple foods of both populations were corn, beans, chili peppers, and avocados, still the most common foods in Nicaragua today. Chocolate was drunk at ceremonial occasions, and turkeys and dogs were raised for their meat.

Tribes that migrated north from what is now Colombia inhabited most of Nicaragua’s Caribbean lowlands area. The various dialects and languages in this area are related to Chibcha, spoken by groups in northern Colombia. Eastern Nicaragua’s population consisted of extended families or tribes. Food was obtained by hunting, fishing, and slash-and-burn agriculture. Root crops (especially cassava), plantains, and pineapples were the staple foods. The people of eastern Nicaragua appear to have traded with and been influenced by the native peoples of the Caribbean, as round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were common in eastern Nicaragua.

When the Spanish arrived in western Nicaragua in the early 1500s, they found three principal tribes, each with a different culture and language: the Niquirano, the Chorotegano, and the Chontal. Each one of these diverse groups occupied much of Nicaragua’s territory, with independent chieftains (cacicazgos) who ruled according to each group’s laws and customs. Their weapons consisted of swords, lances, and arrows made out of wood. Monarchy was the form of government of most tribes; the supreme ruler was the chief, or cacique, who, surrounded by his princes, formed the nobility. A royal messenger that visited each township and assembled the inhabitants to give their chief’s orders disseminated laws and regulations.

The Chontal wer